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THE 


MODEEN   BUILDER'S   GUIDE 


BY 


MINARD    LAFEVRH 


ARCHITECT. 


ILLUSTRATED  BY 
NINETY   COPPER-PLATE   ENGRAVINGS. 


NEW-YORK : 

PAINE  &  BURGESS,  No.   60,  JOHN  STREET. 

PRINTED   BY   C.    C.   &   E.    CHILDS,   JR. 
1846. 


# 


Entered  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  May  4,  1846, 

B3t   W1JLI<1AI?I  B.  SMITH, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


PREFACE. 


% 


Se^-eral  years  have  elapsed  since  I  offered  to  the  public  a  compilation  entitled,  "  The  Builder's  General 
Instructor."  Those  who  are  aware  how  flattering  a  reception,  and  how  ready  a  sale  that  work  met  with, 
will  be  somewhat  surprised,  perhaps,  to  learn,  that,  instead  of  issuing  a  second  edition  of  it,  I  have,  at  a 
considerable  pecuniary  sacrifice,  entirely  withdrawn  the  work  from  print.  The  truth  is,  though  others  seemed 
perfectly  satisfied  with  the  book,  I  myself  was  not.  Subsequent  investigation,  and  increased  experience  as 
an  architect,  enabled  me  to  discover  many  defects  and  inaccuracies,  which  had  at  first  escaped  my  notice  ; 
and  though  I  might  have  issued  a  corrected  edition,  yet,  as  I  had  much  additional  matter  that  I  wished  to 
present,  and  as  this  new  matter,  together  with  the  numerous  alterations  to  be  made  in  the  old,  would  have 
materially  changed  the  character,  and  well  nigh  destroyed  the  identity  of  the  original,  I,  on  the  whole,  pre- 
fered  to  suppress  that  work,  and  prepare  a  substitute. 

From  the  tenor  of  some  of  the  above  remarks  respecting  my  former  work,  it  may  perhaps  be  inferred,  that 
I  deem  the  present  one  faultless,  and  capable  of  safely  bidding  defiance  to  criticism.  Such  is  not  the  fact. 
Faultlessness  is  scarcely  to  be  looked  for  in  any  human  production ;  and  if  it  were,  I  should  not  presume  to 
claim  it  as  an  attribute  to  the  "  Modern  Builder's  Guide."  It  is  hoped,  however,  that  no  material  error 
or  glaring  defect  will  be  found  m  this  work,  and  that  excellences  will  be  discovered,  great  and  numerous 
enough  to  more  than  balance  its  imperfections. 

Though  there  is  considerable  original  matter  in  the  following  pages,  and  though  a  large  portion  of  that 
which  is  not  new,  as  to  substance,  is  entirely  so,  as  it  regards  manner  and  language,  yet,  taken  as  a  whole, 
it  claims  to  be  no  more  than  a  compilation.  Before  concluding,  therefore,  it  will  be  proper  to  specify  the 
authors  whom  I  have  either  consulted  or  made  extracts  from,  as  well  as  the  other  sources  of  aid  that  I  have 
enjoyed,  in  compiling  this  book.  . 

From  the  works  of  the  jnstly  celebrated  Mr.  Nicholson  of  London,  I  have  derived  a  greater  amount  of  aid 
than  from  any  other  source.  His  "  Carpenter's  New  Guide,"  and  his  "  New  Practical  Builder,"  (especially 
the  latter,)  are  works  which  need  no  eulogium  of  mine;  nor  need  I  apologise  for  having,  to  an  extent  some- 
what large,  availed  myself  of  his  labours,  to  enhance  the  value  of  this  compilation.  On  the  following 
subjects,  namely.  Geometry  as  connected  with  practical  Carpentry,  Veneering,  Arches  and  Groins,  Niches, 
Coverings  of  polygonal  and  hemispherical  roofs,  Pendentives,  Domes,  Circular  Sashes,  and  Hand-railing,  I 
have  freely  consulted  the  "  Carpenter's  New  Guide,"  and  in  many  instances  taken  it  as  a  model ;  while,  on 
several  topics  connected  with  Joinery,  Masonry,  and  Plastering,  I  have  made  copious  extracts  from  the  "  New 
Practical  Builder."     The  glossary  of  Technical  Terms  is  from  the  same  work. 

The  only  other  authors  to  whom  I  owe  acknowledgments,  are  Messrs.  Stuart  and  Revett,  of  London,  from 
whose  highly  valuable  and  popular  work  entitled,  "  The  Antiquities  ox  Athens,"  I  have  borrowed  the  article 
relating  to  the  ancient  Orders  of  Architecture. 

To  Mr.  Joshua  Coulter,  an  eminently  skilful  and  experienced  stair-builder  residing  in  Philadelphia,  I  am 
indebted  for  several  valuable  suggestions  and  improvements  in  the  department  of  Hand-railing.,  These  have, 
in  their  appropriate  place,  been  severally  pointed  out  and  duly  accredited.     I  have  also  consulted  several  able 


4  PREFACE. 

and  experienced  architects  in  this  vicinity ;  especially  Mr.  J.  C.  Brady  (now  deceased,)  and  Mr.  Martin  E. 
Thompson,  of  this  city.  The  plan  of  this  work  was  some  time  since  submitted  to  the  inspection  of  these 
two  gentlemen,  and  they  were  pleased  to  say  that  it  met  with  their  entire  and  cordial  approbation. 

Tlie  publication  of  this  work  has,  of  necessity,  been  delayed  much  beyond  the  period  originally  announced ; 
but  this  delay  is  the  le.ss  to  be  regretted,  inasmuch  as  it  has  been  the  means  of  considerably  enhancing  the 
•  value  of  the  work. 

^^In  the  preparation  of  it,  I  have  all  the  while  acted  under  a  strong  conviction  that  something  of  the  kind 
was  imperiously  demanded  by  the  wants  of  carpenters  and  builders  in  general,  but  especially  by  the  wants  of 
such  as  .^e  commencing  tbe  study  and  practice  of  the  building  art.  For  these  tyros  in  the  art,  rather  than 
for  the  experienced  architect,  this  work  is  chieny  designed ;  and,  in  preparing  it,  I  have  made  the  benefit  of 
these  my  principal  aim.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  believed  that  the  work  will  prove  a  valuable  auxiliary  to 
(liose  builders,  who,  though  well  versed,  perhaps,  in  the  practical  part  of  their  profession,  have  little  or  no 
acquaintance  with  its  theory,  or  with  the  scientific  principles  which  lie  at  its  fomidation.  In  submitting  the 
1  esult  of  my  labours  to  these  two  classes,  and  to  the  public  at  large,  I  indulge  the  hope,  that,  so  far  as  those 
labours  are  calculated  to  subserve  the  purpose  for  which  they  were  bestowed,  they  may  be  appreciaited  and 
rewarded ;  and  that  if,  in  the  following  pages,  anything  of  an  opposite  tendency  shall  be  discovered,  it  will 
be  generously  overlooked,  or  at  least  regarded  with  an  indulgent  eye. 

MINARD  LAFEVER. 
.J\tew  York,  1846. 


G  E  O  M  E  T  E  Y 


ADAPTED    TO 


PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY 


t 


As  Geometry  is  the  foundation  on  whicli  practical  carpentry  is  based,  it  is  considered 
important,  in  compiling  this  worlv,  to  introduce  such  geometrical  problems  as  will  be  most 
useful  to  operators.  The  problems  will  be  accompanied  by  diagrams,  or  figures,  such  as 
are  common  in  Carpentry,  and  will  be  explained  in  such  a  manner  that  a  workman, 
even  if  not  thorouglily  acquainted  with  Geometry  as  a  science,  will  be  able  to  understand 
them,  and  when  necessary,  make  a  practical  application  of  them. 

The  problems  introduced  in  this  work,  arc  much  the  same  as  in  Mr.  Nicholson's  new 
"  Carpenters'  Guide."  The  most  of  these  are  correct,  and  well  adapted  to  the  purposes 
for  which  they  were  introduced.  The  explanations,  however,  are  not,  as  it  seems  to  me, 
sufficiently  clear,  or  suited  to  the  comprehension  of  Carpenters  of  limited  scientific  at- 
tainments. To  such,  the  explanations  contained  in  this  work,  will,  it  is  believed,  prove 
exceedingly  useful.. 

DEFINITIONS.  . 

I. 

A  point  has  position,  but  not  magnitude.     (Plate  I.  Fig.   1.) 

II. 

A  line  is  length,  without  breadth  or  thickness.     (Fig.  2.) 

Note. — Lines  and  points  are  constantly  made  use  of  in  Carpentry,  and  without  them, 
no  figure  can  be  described.. 


IV. 

A  superfices  has  length  and  breadth  only.  See  abed,  (Fig.  4.)  Thus,  the  face  of  a 
board  is  a  superficies. 

V. 

A  solid  has  three  dimensions — length,  breadth  and  thickness. 

A  solid  may  be  formed  in  the  following  manner.  Let  abed,  (Fig.  4.)  be  the  under 
side;  e  f  g  h,  one  of  the  vertical  sides  ;  i ;  k  I,  the  other  vertical  side;  and  m,  the  upper 
side,  or  surface.  Now  suppose  i  /,  moved  to  b  c,  and  e  h,  to  a  d ;  then  raisej  k  perpen- 
dicMilar  to  b  c,  and/  g-  perpendicular  to  a  d,  and  turn  m  directly  over  abed;  a  solid 
will  be  formed. 

2 


6  GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 

VI. 

A  curve  line  is  continually  changing  its  direction.     (Fig.  5.) 

A  curve  is  produced  in  various  ways;  as  with  a  compass,  trammel,  intersecting  lines, 
«S;c. ;  and,  except  when  made  by  means  of  a  trammel,  will  be  a  true  curve. 

VII. 

Parallel  lines,  whether  straight  or  curved,  are  always  equally  distant  from  each  other. 
(Fig.  6.) 

Note. — Two  elliptical  lines  cannot  be  drawn  parallel  to  each  other  by  means  of  a 
trammel,  or  intersecting  lines. 

VIII. 

Oblique  lines  change  their  distance,  so  as  on  one  end  to  approach,  and  on  the  other  to 
recede  from  each  other.  On  the  side  where  they  approach  they  would  meet,  if  contin- 
ued.    (Fig.  7.) 

IX. 

A  tangent  is  a  straight  line,  touching  a  curve,  without  cutting  it  when  produced. 
(Fig.  9.) 

X. 

An  angle  is  the  inclination  towards  one  another  of  two  straight  lines,  having  differ- 
ent directions,  but  meeting  in  a  point,  and  being  in  the  same  plane.     (Fig.  10.) 

XI. 

A  right  angle  is  that,  which  is  made  by  a  straight  line  perpendicular  to  another  straight 
line.     (Fig.  8.) 

XII. 

An  oblique  angle  is  one,  that  is  either  greater  or  less  than  a  right  angle.  If  greater, 
it  is  an  obtuse  angle.     (Fig.  12.)     If  less,  it  is  an  acute  angle.     (Fig.  11.) 

XIII.  , 

Rectilineal  figures  are  those,  which  are  contained  by  straight  lines. 

XIV. 

Trilateral  figures,  or  triangles,  are  bounded  by  three  straight  lines.  (Fig's.  13,  14,  «Stc.) 

XV. 

(Quadrilateral  figures  are  bounded  by  four  straight  lines.     (Fig's.  17,  18,  «SiC.) 

XVI. 

Multilateral  figures,  or  polygons,  are  bounded  by  more  than  four  straight  lines. 

XVII. 

Of  three  sided  figures,  an  equilateral  triangle  is  that  which  has  three  equal  sides. 
(Fig.  13.) 

XVIII. 

An  isosceles  triangle  has  only  two  sides  equal.     (Fig.  14.) 

XIX. 

A  scalene  triangle  has  all  its  sides  unequal.     (Fig.  15.) 

XX. 

A  right-angled  triangle  has  one  of  its  angles  a  right  angle.     (Fig.  16.) 

XXI. 

An  obtuse-angled  triangle  has  one  of  its  angles  an  obtuse  angle.     Fig.  15.) 

XXII. 

An  acute-angled  triangle  has  all  its  angles  acute  angles.     (Fig.  13.) 


GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY.  7 

XXIII. 

A  rectangle  is  a  four  sided  figure,  having  all  its  angles  right  angles.     (Fig's.  17,  18.) 

XXIV. 

An  equilateral  rectangle  is  one  that  has  all  its  sides  equal.     Fig.  17.) 

XXV. 

An  oblong  rectangle,  or  an  oblong,  has  all  its  angles  right  angles,  but  has  not  all  its 
sides  equal.     (Fig.  18.) 

Note. — An  oblong  has  its  opposite  sides  equal. 

XXVI. 

A  rhombus  has  its  four  sides  equal,  but  its  angles  are  not  right  angles.     (Fig.  21.) 

XXVII. 

A  rhomboid  has  four  sides,  of  which  the  opposite  ones  are  equal  to  each  other,  but  its 
angles  are  not  right  angles.     (Fig.  22.) 

XXVIII. 

A  trapezium  is  a  quadrilateral  figure,  having  none  of  its  sides  parallel.     (Fig.  20.) 

XXIX. 

A  trapezoid  is  a  quadrilateral  figure,   having  only  two  of  its  sides  parallel.  (Fig.  19.) 
Note. — Figures  having  three  angles,  as  triangles,  are  called  trigons  ;  four,  tetragons ; 

five  pentagons  ;  six,  hexagons  ;  seven,  heptagons ;  eight,  octagons  ;  nine,  nonagons  ;  ten, 

decagons;  eleven,  undecagons;  twelve  duodecagons  ;  and  so  on. 

XXX. 

A  circle  is  a  figure  bounded  by  a  curved  line,  called  the  circumference,  which  is  every 
where  equi-distant  from  a  certain  point  witliin  the  circle,  called  the  centre.     (Fig.  23.) 

XXXI. 

A  diameter  of  a  circle  is  a  straight  line  drawn  through  the  centre,  and  terminated  both 
ways  by  the  circumference.     (Fig.  23.) 

XXXII. 

A  radius  of  a  circle  is  half  of  a  diameter,  or  a  straight  line  drawn  from  the  centre  to 
the  circumference      Thus,  from  1  to  4,  (Fig.  23.)  1  to  2,  or  1  to  3,  is  a  radius. 

XXXIII. 

An  arch  of  a  circle  is  any  portion  of  the  circumference ;  as  at  1,  3,  2,  (Fig.  24.) 

XXXIV. 

The  chord  of  an  arch  is  a   straight  line  joining  the  extremities  of  the  arch ;  as  1,  2. 
(Fig  24.) 

XXXV. 

A  segment  of  a  circle  is  any  portion  of  the  circle,  bounded  by  an  arch  and  its  chord. 
(Fig.  24.) 

XXXVI. 

A  semicircle  is  half  a  circle,  or  the  segment  cut  off  by  a  diameter.     (Fig.  25.) 

XXXVII 

A  sector  of  a  circle  is  any  part  of  the  circle,  bounded  by  an  ardh  and  two  radii  drawn 
to  the  extremities  of  that  arch.     Thus,  1,  2,  3,  (Fig.  26.)  is  a  sector. 

XXXVIII. 

A  quadrant  is  a  quarter  of  a  circle.     Thus,  1,  2,  3,  (Fig.  27.)  is  a  quadrant. 


0  GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 

XXXIX. 

The  altitude  of  any  figure  is  a  perpendicular,  let  fall  from  its  vortex  upon  the  opposite 
side,  or  base.  Thus,  a  b,  (Fig.  28.)  is  the  altitude  of  the  triangle. 

Note. — When  several  angles  are  at  one  point,  as  at  1,  (Fig.  29.)  any  one  of  them  is 
expressed  by  three  letters  ;  of  which,  the  letter  that  is  at  the  angular  point,  is  put  be- 
tween the  other  two  letters,  and  one  of  these  two  is  placed  somewhere  upon  one  of  the 
straight  lines  that  contain  the  angle,  and  the  other  upon  the  other  line.  Thus,  the  an- 
gle which  is  contained  by  the  straight  lines  3,  1,  and  4,  I,  (Fig.  29.)  is  named  the  angle 
3,  1,  4.  or  4,  1,  3.  But  if  there  be  only  one  angle  at  a  point,  it  may  be  expressed  by  a 
single  letter  placed  at  that  point ;  as  the  angle  at  A,  (Fig.  30.) 

N.B.  To  measure  an  angle,  a  circle  is  so  described  that  its  centre  shall  be  the  angular 
point,  and  its  circumference  shall  cut  the  two  lines  which  contain  the  angle.  'J'he  arch 
between  these  two  lines  is  called  a  measure  of  the  angle.  Thus,  the  arch  b  c,  (Fig.  30.) 
is  a  measure  of  the  angle. 

PROBLEM— PL.  2. 

TO    ERECT    A    PERPENDICULAR    TO    A    GIYE.X    LINE    13    2,    (pLATE    II.    FIG.    1.)    FROM    A 

GIVEN    POINT    IN    THE    SAME. 

On  each  side  of  the  point  3,  take  any  two  equal  distances,  as  3  1,  3  2;    from   the  points 

1  2  as  centres,  with  the  distance  1  2  as  radius,  and  on  the  same  side  of  the  given  line, 
describe  two  arcs  of  circles  intersecting  each  other  at  4  ;  join  3  4  :  the  line  3  4  will  be  the 
perpendicular  required. 

UPON    A    BASE    SIX    FEET    IN    LENGTH,    TO    ERECT    A    PERPENDICULAR    THAT    SHALL    BE  EIGHT 

FEET    LONG. 

Let  the  line  12  (Fig.  2.)  be  the  given  base;  from  one  end,  as  1,  of  this  line,  with  the 
distance  ten  feet  lor  radius,  describe  an  arc  of  a  circle ;  from  the  other  end  2,  of  the  base, 
draw  a  perpendicular  2  3,  (see  preceding  problem,)  so  as  to  cut  the  arc:  the  perpendicular 

2  3  will  be  eight  feet  long. 

FROM    A     GIVEN    POINT,    TO    LET    FALL    A    PERPENDICULAR    UPON    A    GIVEN    STRAIGHT    LINE. 

Let  ],  (Fig.  3.)  be  the  given  point,  and  2,  3,  the  given  straight  line;  from  1  as  a  centre, 
describe  an  arc  so  as  to  cut  the  given  line  in  two  points,  as  2,  3  ;  from  the  points  2,  3,  as 
centres,  with  the  distance  2,  6,  or  3,  5,  for  r;idiu!i,  describe  two  arcs  cutting  each  other  at4 ; 
join  1,  4  ;  1,  4  will  be  the  perpendicular  required 

FROM    ONE    EXTREMITY    OF    A    GIVEN    STRAIGHT    LINE,    TO    ERECT  A    PERPENDICULAR    TO    THAT 

LINE. 

Let  3,  1,  (Fig.  4.)  be  the  given  straight  line,  and  1  that  extremity  from  which  it  is 
required  to  erect  a  perpendicular ;  take  any  distance,  as  1 ,  4,  and  from  4  as  a  centre,  with  4, 1 
for  radius,  describe  an  arc  3,  1,  2,  meeting  the  given  straight  line  at  1  and  3  ;  join  3, 4  and 
produce  the  line  3,  4  to  2  ;  join  1,  2,  and  1,  2  will  be  the  required  perpendicular. 

TO    BISECT,    OR    DIVIDE     A    GIVEN    LINE    INTO    TWO    EQUAL    PARTS, 

Let  1,  2,  (Fig.  5.)  be  the  given  line  ;  from  the  points  1,  2,  as  centres,  with  any  distance 
greater  than  half  1,  2  for  radius,  as  1,  1  and  2,  3,  describe  arcs  of  circle  cutting  each  other 
at  5  and  G  ;  join  5,  6 :  the  line  1,  2  is  bisected  at  9, 


GEOMETRY    ADAPTED   TO    PRACTICAL   CARPENTRY.  » 

TO    BISECT    AN    ANGLE. 

Let  3, 1,  2,  (Fig.  6. )  be  the  given  angle  :  it  is  required  to  bisect  it.  From  the  point  1 
as  centre,  with  any  distance,  as  1,  2,  for  radius,  describe  an  arc  so  as  to  cut  the  sides  con- 
taining the  angle;  from  the  points  of  intersection,  3,2,  with  any  radius,  describe  arcs  cutting 
each  other,  as  at  4  ;  join  4,  1  :  the  angle  3,  1,2,  is  bisected  by  the  line  1,  4. 

AT    A    GIVEN    POINT    IN     A    GIVEN    STRAIGHT     LINE,    TO    MAKE    AN    ANGLE    EQ.UAL    TO    A    GIVEN 

ANGLE. 

Let  4  6,  (Fig,  8.)  be  the  given  straight  line,  and  4  the  given  point,  and  2  13,  (Fig.  7) 
the  given  angle;  from  the  point  1,  as  a  centre,  with  any  distance,  as  1  3,  for  radius,  describe 
an  arc  3  2,  meeting  the  lines  1  3,  1  2,  at  3,  2 ;  on  the  given  straight  line  4  6,  take  the  same 
distance,  and  from  4  as  centre,  describe  an  arc 6  5,  equal  to  the  arc  3  2  ;  join  5  4  :  the  angle 
5  4  6  is  equal  to  the  angle  2  13. 

PL.  3. 

UPON    A    G4VEN    STRAIGHT    LINE,    TO    DESCRIBE    AN    EQUILATERAL    TRIANGLfe. 

Let  1  2,  (Plate  111.  Fig.  1  .)  be  the  given  straight  line  ;  from  the  points  1,  2,  as  centres, 
with  the  distance  1  2  for  radius,  describe  arcs  of  circles  cutting  each  other  at  3  ;  join  3  1, 
and  3  2;  the  triangle  1  3  2  is  equilateral. 

TO    DESCRIBE    A    SQUARE    UPON    A    GIVEN    STRAIGHT   LINE. 

Let  1  2,  (Fig.  2.)  be  the  given  straight  line  ;  from  the  points  1,2,  as  centres,  with  the 
distance  1  2  as  radius  describe  arcs  of  circles,  1  3  and  2  4  ;  from  the  point  5  where  they 
intersect,  with  half  the  distance  5  2,  that  is,  with  5  6  for  radius,  describe  the  arcs  6  3,74; 
through  the  points  3,  4,  draw  the  straight  lines  3  2,  3  4,  4  1 :  the  quadrilateral  figure, 
described  upon  the  straight  line  1  2,  is  a  square. 

A  SIDE  OF  A  POLVGON  OF  ANY    NUMBER  OP    SIDES    WHATEVER    BEING    GIVEN,  TO  DESCRIBE  THE 

POLYGON    OF    WHICH    IT    IS    A    SIDE. 

Let  1  6,  (Fig.  5.)  be  a  side  of  a  polygon  of  six  equal  sides;  from  6,  as  centre,  with  the 
given  side  for  radius,  describe  semicircle;  divide  the  semicircle  into  as  many  equal  parts  as 
the  polygon  is  to  have  sides,  viz.  in  this  case,  six,  and  through  the  points  ofdivision  2,  3,  4, 
draw  the  straight  lines  6  9,  6  8,  6  7  ;  draw  also  the  radius  6  5;  from  the  point  1,  with  the 
side  1  6  for  radius,  describe  an  arc,  and  from  the  point  9,  in  which  it  cuts  the  line  6  9,  with 
the  same  radius,  describe  an  arc  cutting  6  8  in  8 ;  do  the  same  from  points  8  and  7 ;  join 
1  9, 9  8,  8  7  and  7  5 :  1  9  8  7  5  6  is  the  polygon  required. 

THROtJCH    A    GIVEN    POINT    IN    THE    CIRCUMFERENCE    OF    A    CIRCLE,    TO    DRAW    A    TANGENT    TO 

THAT    CIRCLE. 

Let  2  (Fig.  7.)  be  the  given  point  in  the  circumference:  draw  the  radius  1  2,  aBd  through 
2,  draw  3  4  at  right-angles  to  1  2 :  3  4  is  the  tangent  required. 

A    TANGENT  TO  A  CIRCLE    BEING    GIVEN,  TO  FIND    THE    POINT    WHERE  IT  TOUCHES   THE  CIRCLE. 

Let  12  (Fig.  8.)  be  the  given  tangent ;  take  any  point,  as  2,  in  1  2,  and  from  2  draw  a 
straight  line  2  3  to  the  centre  of  the  circle  ;  bisect  2  3  in  4,  and  from  4,  with  4  3  or  4  2  for 
radius,  describe  an  arch  cutting  1  2  in  5 :  5  is  the  touching  point  require. 

3 


10  GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 

TO    FIND    A    MEAN    PROPORTIONAL    BETWEEN    TWO    GIVEN    STRAIGHT    LINES. 

Let  1,  2,  (Fig.  9.)  be  the  two  given  straight  lines ;  place  1,  2  in  one  straight  line  3  4  5, 
3  4  being  equal  to  1,  and  4  5  to  2 ;  bisect  3  5  in  6  and  describe  the  semicircle  3  7  5,  from 
the  point  4  draw  4  7  at  right  angles  to  3  5  :  then  3  4  is  to  4  7  as  4  7  is  to  4  5 ;  that  is,  4  7  is 
the  mean  proportional  required. 

THROUGH    ANY   THREE    POINTS   TO    DESCRIBE    THE    CIRCUMFERENCE    OP    A   CIRCLE. 

Let  2,  3  4  (Fig.  10.)  be  the  three  given  points;  join  2  3  and  3  4,  and  from  3,  with  any 
radius,  as  3  7,  describe  a«  arc  7  6  5  8  ;  from  the  points  2  and  4,  as  centres,  with  the  same 
radius,  describe  arcs,  cutting  the  first-described  arc  in  the  points  6, 7,  and  5,  8 ;  through  the 
points  of  intersection  draw  the  straight  lines  8  5,  7  6,  and  produce  them  till  they  meet :  a 
circle  described  from  the  point  1,  in  which  they  meet,  will  have  the  points  23and4init3 
circumference. 

TO    FIND    THE    LENGTH    OF    ANY    GIVEN    ARC. 

Let  12  3  (Fig.  11.)  be  a  given  arc ;  draw  the  chord  1  3 ;  bisect  the  given  arc  in  2,  and 
from  I,  as  a  centre,  with  the  distance  1  2  as  radius,  describe  the  arc  2  6  ;  produce  the  chord 
1  3  so  that  6  4  shall  be  equal  to  1  6 ;  divide  3  4  into  three  equal  parts,  and  produce  the 
straight  line  1  4  so  that  4  5  shall  be  equal  to  one-third  of  3  4 ;  the  straight  line  1  5  is  the 
length  of  the  arc  12  3. 

PL.  4. 

TO    CONSTRUCT   A    TRIANGLE    OP    WHICH    THE    SIDES    SHALL    BE    EaUAL    TO    THREE    GIVEN 

STRAIGHT    LINES. 

Let  12,  34,  56,  (Plate  IV.  Fig.  1.)  be  the  three  given  straight  lines ;  from  one  extremity, 
as  2,  of  the  line  1  2  for  a  centre,  with  the  distance  3  4  for  radius,  describe  an  arc,  and  from 
the  other  end  1  of  the  same  line,  with  5  6  for  radius,  describe  another  arc  so  as  to  cut  the 
first-described  one ;  from  the  point  of  intersection  7,  draw  the  straight  lines  7  1,  7  2:  1  2  7 
is  the  triangle  required. 

NoTK.— Of  the  three  given  straight  lines,  the  length  of  any  two  taken  together  must  be 
greater  than  that  of  the  remaining  one. 

TO    MAKE    A    TRAPEZIUM    EQUAL    TO    A    GIVEN    TRAPEZIUM. 

Let  12  3  4  (Fig.  2.)  be  the  given  trapezium  ;  divide  it  into  two  triangles  by  joining  two 
opposite  angles,  as  2,  4;  draw  a  straight  line  5  6  (Fig.  3.)  equal  to  2  3  in  Fig.  2.,  and  at 
the  points  5,  6,  in  the  straigiit  line  5  6,  make  (See  Prob.  VII.)the  angle  6  5  7  equal  lo  the 
angle  3  2  4,  and  the  angle  5  6  7  equal  to  the  angle  2  3  4 ;  at  the  points  5,  7,  in  the  straight 
line  5  7,  make  the  angle  7  5  8  equal  to  4  2  I,  and  the  angle  5  7  8  equal  to  2  4  1  :  the 
trapezium  8  5  6  7  is  equal  to  the  trapezium  12  3  4, 

ANY   IRREGULAR   POLYGON   BEING    GIVEN,    TO    MAKE   A    POLYGON    EftUAL    AND    SIMILAR   TO   THE 

ONE    GIVEN. 

Let  1  234  5(  Fig.  4.)  be  the  given  irregular  polygon ;  divide  it  into  three  triangles  by 
the  straight  lines  1  3,  1  4  ;  draw  a  straight" line  1  2  "(Fig.  5.)  equal  to  1  2  in  Fig.  4.  and  as 
in  the  preceding  problem,  upon  1  2  (Fig.  5.)  make  the  triangle  12  3  equal  to  the  triangle 
1  2  3  in  Fig.  4 ;  upon  1  3,  the  triangle  I  3  4  equal  to  1  3  4 ;  and  upon  1  4,  tlie  triangle 
1  4  5  equal  to  the  triangle  14  5  in  Fig.  4 :  then  will  the  two  polygons  be  equal  and 
similar. 


GEOMETRY    ADAPTED   TO    PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY.  11 

A    TRIANGLE    BEING    GIVEN,    TO    MAKE    A    RECTANGLE    EdUAL    TO    THE    TRIANGLE. 

Let  12  3  (Fig.6.)  be  the  given  triangle,  and  from  tlie  angle  at  1,  let  fall  the  perpendi- 
cular 1  4  upon  the  opposite  side ;  bisect  1  4  in  5,  and  through  5  draw  the  straight  line  6  7 
parallel  to  2  3  ;  draw  3  7  and  2  6  at  right  angles  to  2  3 :  the  rectangle  2  3  7  6  is  equal  to 
the  triangle  12  3. 

TO   MAKE    A    SaUARE   EftUAt    TO    A    GIVEN    RECTANGLE. 

Let  12  3  4  (Fig.  7.)  be  the  given  rectangle ;  produce  one  of  its  sides,  as  1  4,  so  that  the 
part  produced  4  8  shall  be  equal  to  the  side  4  3  of  the  rectangle ;  bisect  1  8  in  9,  and  from 
9,  with  9  8  or  9  1  for  radius,  describe  the  semicircle  17  8;  produce  the  side  4  3  till  it  meets 
thesemicircle  at  7,  and  upon  the  straightline  4  7  describe  thesq^uare(See  Prob.  IX.)  7  6  5  4: 
the  7  6  5  4,  is  equal  to  the  rectangle  12  3  4. 

TO    MAKE    A    SaOARE    EQ.UAL    TQ    TWO    GIVEN    SftUARES. 

Let  1,  2  (Fig.  8.)  be  the  two  given  squares  ;  place  them  so  as  to  touch,  and  so  that  one 
side  of  one  square  shall  be  at  right  angles  to  one  side  of  the  other,  as  3  5, 5  4  in  the  Figures; 
join  3  4,  and  upon  the  hypothenuse  3  4  of  the  right-angled  triangle  34  5  describe  the  square 
3  6  7  4.;  the  square  3  6  7  4  is  equal  to  the  two  squares  1,  2. 

PL.  5. 

TO    MAKE  AN    ELLIPSIS    WITH    A    THREAD    OR    STRING. 

Let  1  2  (Plate  V.  Fig.  1)  be  the  longest  diameter  of  the  required  ellipsis,  and  let  4  3,  at 
right  angles  to  1  2,  be  half  of  the  shortest  diameter ;  from  the  point  3,  as  centre,  with  half 
1  2  for  radius,  describe  arcs  cutting  1  2  at  the  points  5  and  6 ;  at  these  two  points  place  pins, 
and,  holding  a  pencil  at  the  point  3,  put  a  thread  or  cord  round  the  two  pins  and  the  pencil, 
so  that  when  round  them,  it  shall  be  stretched  or  taut ;  move  the  pencil  round,  keeping  the 
string  stretched,  and  an  ellipsis  will  be  described. 

TO   MAKE    AN    ELLIPSIS    BY    TRAMMEL. 

Let  1  3,  2  4  (Fig.  2.)  be  the  axis  or  diameters  of  the  i-equired  ellipsis  ;  let  6  7  8  be  a 
^  trammel,  6  being  the  place  for  a  pencil,  and  7,  8  places  for  pins  to  move  in  grooves ;  make 
6  7  equal  to  half  the  shortest  diameter,  that  is,  to  4  5,  and  6  8  equal  to  half  the  longest,  Uiat 
is,  to  1  5 ;  move  the  pencil  round,  and  an  ellipsis  will  be  described. 

AN    ELLIPSIS    BEING    GIVEN,    TO    FIND   ITS    CENTRE    AND    ITS    TWO    AXIS. 

Let  14  7  2  5  8  (Fig.  3.)  be  the  given  ellipsis;  draw  any  two  parallel  lines,  as  1  2,  1  2; 
bisect  those  lines  in  3,  3,  and  through  3,  3,  draw  the  straight  line  4  5  ;  bisect  4  5  in  6,  and 
from  6,  as  centre,  with  any  radius,  describe  an  arc  so  as  to  cut  the  circumference  of  the 
ellipsis,  as  7  8;  join  7,  8,  and  through  6  draw  9  10  parallel  to  7  8,  and  tlirough  the  same 
point  draAv  1112  at  rig'it  angles  to  9  10 :  6  is  the  centre,  9  10  the  conjugate  axis,  and  1 1  12 
ihe  transverse  axis,  of  the  given  ellipsis. 

ONE  DIAMETER  OP  AN  ELLIPSIS  BEING  GIVEN  TO  DESCRIBE  AN  ELLIPSIS,  SUCH  THAT  ITS  TWO  DI- 
AMETERS   SHALL    BE    PROPORTIONAL    TO    THE    DIAMETERS    OF    ANY    GIVEN    ELLIPSIS. 

Let  8  6  (Fig.  4.)  be  one  diameter,  as  for  instance  the  conjugate  of  the  required  ellipsis, 
and  let  I  2  3  4  be  a  given  ellipsis,  1  3  being  its  conjugate  and 2  4 its  transverse  diameter; 
about  the  ellipsis  123  4  describe  the  rectangle  9  10  1 1  12  by  drawingslraight  lines  through 


12  GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 

the  points  1,  3  parallel  to  2  4  and  through  the  points  2,  4,  parallel  to  1  3;  draw  the  di- 
agonals 12  10,  11  9;  through  the  point  8  or  6,  and  parallel  to  the  transverse  axis  2,  4, 
draw  the  straiglit  line  13  J  6  or  14  15  so  as  to  meet  the  diagonals ;  through  the  points  in 
which  they  meet  the  diagonals,  and  parallel  to  the  conjugate  axis  1  3,  dra"\v  the  straight 
lines  IG  15,  13  14;  the  part  7  5  of  the  straight  line  2  4,  cutofl'by  the  lines  IG  15,  13  14, 
is  the  traverse  axis  of  the  required  ellipsis;  describe  (See  Prob's.  XXII  and  XXHI.)  the 
ellipsis  5  8  7  6:  the  diameters  of  this  ellipsis  are  proportional  to  those  of  the  ellipsis  1 
2  3  4;  that  is,  8  G  is  to  7  5  as  1  3  is  to  2  4. 

TO  DESCRIBE  AN  ELLIPSIS  ABOUT  A  GIVEN  PARALLELOGRAM,  SO  THAT  ITS  LENGTH  SHALL 
HAVE  THE  SAME  RATIO  TO  ITS  WIDTH,  THAT  THE  LENGTH  OF  THE  PARALLELOGRAM 
HAS  TO  ITS  WIDTH. 

Let  12  3  4  (Fig.  5.)  be  the  given  parallelogram ;  draw  the  diagonals  1  3,  2  4,  and 
through  the  point  1  7  in  which  they  intersect,  draw  15  14  parallel  to  1  2  or  4  3,  and 
also  G  1  6  parallel  to  I  4  or  2  3;  from  the  point  1  7  where  the  diagonals  intersect,  with 
half  the  width  of  the  parallelogram  for  rail i us,  describe  the  quadrant  6  7;  bisect  the  arc 
6  7  in  5,  and  through  5,  draw  the  straight  line  8  9  })arallel  to  the  line  15  14;  draw  the 
lines  6  9,  9  1  4,  and  through  the  point  2  draw  2  1  2  parallel  to  9  G,  and  2  11  parallel 
to  9  1  4  ;  produce  the  line  15  14  till  it  meets  2  1  1  in  1  1,  and  produce  the  line  1  G  6 
till  it  meets  2  1  2  in  1  2 ;  17  12  will  be  half  the  width,  and  17  11  half  the  length  of 
the  required  ellipsis;  make  17  10  equal  to  1  7  1  1,  and  17  13  equal  to  1  7  1  2,  and 
describe  the  ellipsis  1  0  1  2  1  1  1  3:  its  length  is  to  its  width  as  the  lengtli  of  the  par- 
allelogram J  2  3  4  is  to  its  width. 

TO  DIVIDE  A  GIVEN  STRAIGHT  LINE    INTO    PARTS  THAT  SHALL  BE  PROPORTIONAL  TO  THE 

PARTS  OF  A  GIVEN  DIVIDED  STRAIGHT  LIJfE. 

Let  1  4  (Fig.  6.)  be  a  straight  line  divided  in  the  points  2,  3,  and  let  1  5  be  the  line 
given  to  be  divided  ;  place  the  lines  1  4,  I  5  so  as  to  make  any  angle  whatever,  as  4  1  5; 
join  the  other  extremities  by  the  line  4  5,  and  through  the  points  3,  2,  draw  3  6,  2  7 
parallel  to  4  5 ;  the  straight  line  I  5  is  divided  in  the  points  6,  7;  so  that  5  6  is  to  6  7  as 
4  3  is  to  3  2,  and  G  7  is  to  7  1  as  3  2  is  to  2  1. 

ANOTHER  METHOD  OF  DOING  THE  SAME  THING. 

Let  1  4  (Fig.  7.)  be  a  straight  line  divided  in  the  points  2,  3;  upon  I  4  describe  the 
equilateral  triangle  1  G  4,  and  if,  as  in  this  case,  the  line  to  be  divided  be  shorter  tiian 
the  divided  line,  place  it  within  th.e  triangle  and  parallel  to  the  divided  line  as  7  5  ;  join 
6  2  ,  G  3:  the  line  7  5  is  divided  by  the  lines  G  2,  G  3,  so  that  its  parts  are  proportional 
to  the  parts  of  the  given  divided  line  1  4. 

Note. — If  the  line  to  be  divided  be  longer  than  the  divided  one,  produce  two  sides 
of'the  equilateral  triangle  beyond  the  base  and  until  the  said  line  can  be  placed  between 
tliem  parallel  to  the  base,  in  both  cases,  the  length  of  the  line  to  be  divided,  measured 
from  th.e  vortex  on  the  two  sides,  will  give  the  points  in  which  the  said  line  will  cut 
those  sides. 

TO  INSCRIBE  AN  EQUILATERAL  AX©  EQUIANGULAR  OCTAGON  IN  A  GIVEN  SQUARE. 

Let  1  2  3  4  (Fig.  8.)  be  the  given  square;  draw  the  diagonals  1  3,  2  4,  and  from  the 
points  I,  2,  3,  4  as  centres,  with  half  of  either  diagonal  for  radius,  desci-ibe  arcs  of  cir- 
cles meeting  the  sides  of  the  square  in  the  points  5,  8,  7,  10  9,  12,  II,  6 ;  join  12  5,  6  7,  8  9, 
10  11:  an  equilateral  and  equiangular  octagon  1256789  10  11  has  been  inscribed  in 
tlie  given  square  12  3  4. 


GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY.  13 

PL.  6. 

THE  LENGTH  AND  HEIGHT  OF  A  SEGMENT  OF  A  CIRCLE  BEING  GIVEN  TO  DESCRIBE  THE  SEGMENT. 

Let  I  2  (Plate  VF.  Fig.  \.)  be  the  length,  and  5  1  3  the  height  of  the  segment  to  be 
de.>^ci-ibecl;  bi.sectthe  line  1  2  in  1  3,  and  from  the  point  of  bisection  draw  the  straight  line 
1  3  8  at  right  angles  to  ihe  line  1  2;  draw  the  chord  I  5.;  bisect  that  chord,  and  through  the 
bisecting  point  draw  the  straight  line  I  0  8  perpendicular  to  1  5;  the  point8  where  the  two 
perpendiculars  meet  is  the  centre  of  the  circle  of  which  the  required  segment  is  a  part;  from 
8,  with  8  5  as  radius,  describe  the  arc  I  5  2,  and  you  have  the  segment  required. 

THE  LENGTH  AND  HEIGHT  OF  A  SEGMENT  OF  A  CIRCLE  BEING  GIVEN,  TO  DESCRIBE  THE  SEGMENT 

BY  MEANS  OF  RODS. 

Let  the  line  I  2  (Fig.  2.)  be  the  length,  and  3  4  the  height,  of  the  required  segment; 
take  two  rods  5  3,  6  3,  each  equal  in  length  to  the  line  1  2,  and  make  such  an  angle  with 
them  that  when  the  angular  point  is  at  3,  the  rr)ds  will  meet  the  extremities  of  the  line 

1  2;  secure  them  at  that  angle  by  the  cross-piece  7  8;  at  the  points  1,  2  fix  pins,  and 
through  a  hole  in  the  rods  at  the  point  3  put  a  pencil ;  move  the  pencil  round  keeping  the 
rod.-i  pressed  against  the  pins,  and  the  segment  13  2  will  be  described. 

TO  DO  THE  SAME  THING  BY  MEATVS  OF  A  FLAT  TRIANGLE. 

Let.  4  3  (Fig.  3.)  be  the  length,  and  I  2  the  height,  of  the  required  segment;  join  3  2, 
and  through  2  draw  2  u  parallel  to  4  3  and  equal  t«  2  3,  and  join  5  3;  place  pins  at  the 
points  2,  4",  and  with  a  pencil  at  the  vertex  of  the  triangle,  move  the  vertex  round  from 

2  to  4,  as  in  Figure  4;  take  up  tlie  pin  at  4,  and  place  it  at  3;  then  move  the  vertex 
from  2  to  3^  and  the  required  segment  will  be  described 

THE  TWO  AXIS  OF  AN  ELLIPSIS  BEING  GIVEN,  TO  DESCRIBE  THE  ELLIPSIS. 

Let  4  6  (Fig.  5.)  be  the  transverse  and  I  3  the  conjugate  axis  of  the  required  ellipsis; 
through  G  draw  6  7  parallel  and  equal  to  2  1  ;  bisect  6  7  in  8,  and  draw  8  1,73  cutting 
each  other  at  9;  bisect  I  9,  and  from  the  bisecting  point  draw  a  straight  line  perpendic- 
ular to  I  9;  produce  that  straight  line  and  the  axis  1  3  till  they  meet  at  I  2;  draw  I  2 
7  cutting  the  axis  4  6  in  15;  make  2  I  7  equal  to  2  I  5,  and  produce  3  1  so  that  2  I  3 
shall  be^'equal  to  2  12;  draw  1.2  I  4,  I  3  1  8,  1  3  1  6,  and  from  the  points  1  2,  1  3,  as 
centres,  with  the  distance  12  1  or  13  3  for  radius,  describe  the  arcs  14  9  18  16,  and 
from  the  p;iints  1  7,  1  5,  with  4  I  7  or  6  I  5  for  radius,  describe  the  arcs  1  4  1  8,  9  16: 
1  6  o  4  is  the  ellipsis  required. 

TO  DO  THE  SAME  THING  BY  MEANS  OF  ORDINATES. 

Let  tlie  line  1  2  (Fig.  6.)  be  the  length,  and  the  line  4  9  half  the  width  of  the  ellipsis 
to  be  descriljcd;  on  the  length  1  2  describe  the  semicircle  18  2;  divide  the  semicircle 
into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  as  for  instance  sixteen,  and  through  the  points  of  divis- 
ion I,  2,  3,  «S:c.  and  at  right  angles  to  the  transverse  axis  1  2,  draw  the  ordinates  I  I,  22, 

3  3.  &c.;  draw  I  3  perpendicular  to  the  tnuisverse  axis,  and  equal  to  4  9,  and  join  4  3; 
take  in  the  compass  tiiat  part  of  the  straight  line  7  7  which  is  cut  off  by  the  lines  1  4,  3 
4,  that  is,  take  7  !,  and  on  both  sides  of  tlie  transverse  axis,  and  at  each  end  of  the  same, 
cut  off  the  leufrth  7  1  o?i  the  straight  line  I  I  ;  take  (i  2  ami  cut  off  the  same  length  on 
?  2,  on  eacli  side  of  the  transverse  axis;  on  3  3,  cutoff  the  length  5  3;  on  4  4,  the  lemjlh 

4  4,  intercepted  between  the  lines  I'  4,  3'4;  on  5  5,  the  intercepted  length  3  3;  on  6  6, 

4 


14  GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 

the  intercepted  length  2  2;  and  so  on;  the  circumference  of  the  required  ellipsis  will  pass 
through  the  points  in  which  the  straight  lines,  orordinates,  1  1,  2  2,  3  3,  &c.  were  cutoff. 

PL.  7. 

TO  FIND  THE  SECTION  OF  A  SEMI-CYLINDEI?,  WHEN  IT  IS  CUT  BY  A  PLANE  THAT  IS  PER- 
PENDICULAR TO  THE  PLANE  COLNCIDING  WITH  ITS  FLAT  SIDE,  BUT  IS  NOT  PAKALLKL  TO 
ITS    ENDS    OR    BASES. 

Let  the  semicircle  7  6  8  (Plate  VII.  Fig.  1.)  represent  one  end  of  a  semi-cylinder,  the 
four-.sided  figure  7  8  10  9,  a  portion  of  its  length,  and  the  line  9  10,  the  edge  of  a  plane 
culling  the  semi-cylinder  perpendicularly,  but  not  parallel  to  the  plane  7  6  8;  divide  the 
arc  7  6  8  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  as  for  instance  twelve;  and  from  the  points  of 
division  1,  2,  3,  &.c.  draw  perpendiculars  to  ihe  line  7  8,  and  produce  them  lill  they  meet 
the  line  9  10;  from  the  points  I,  2,  3,  &c.  where  they  meet  9  10,  and  at  right  angles  to 
the  same,  draw  the  lines  I  1,  2  2,  3  3,  &c.  each  equal  to  the  line  of  the  same  name  in  the 
semicircle  7  6  8;  describe  the  curve  9  6  10  passing  through  the  extremities  of  those  lines; 
the  figure  B  is  the  section  required. 

AN  ACUTE  ANGLE  BEING  GIVEN,  TO  CUT  A  SEMI-CYLINDER  IN  A  DIRECTION  OBLIQUE  TO  THE 
DIAMETER  OK  THE  BASE,  AS  BEFORE,  AND  BY  A  PLANE  MAKING  AN  ACUTE  ANGLE  EQUAL 
TO  THE  GIVEN  ONE  WITH  THE  PLANE  WHICH  COINCIDES  WITH  THE  FLAT  SIDE  OF  THE  SEMI- 
CYLINDER. 

Let  the  semi-circle  7  «  8,  the  four  sided  figure  7  8  10  9,  and  the  straight  line  9  10, 
represent  the  same  things  as  in  the  preceding  problem,  and  let  the  angle  b  a  /'at  C,  be 
the  given  acute  angle;  at  C,  draw  d  e  at  right  angles  to  d  a  and  equal  to  the  radius  a  6 
or  8  Ij  of  the  base;  through  e  draw  c  c  parallel  to  d  a;  produce  u  f  till  it  meets  e  c  in  c, 
and  from  c  let  fall  perpendicular  c  b ;  in  9  10  take  any  point,  as  c,  and  from  c  draw  c /'at 
right  angles  to  9  10,  and  equal  to  a  c  at  C  ;  ])roduce/  e  so  that  e  g  shall  be  equal  to  a  b 
at  C ;  through  g  draw  g  d  parallel  to  7  8,  and  join  df;  produce  the  radius  a  b  io  d,  and 
through  g  draw  g  ji  parallel  to  d  a,  and  join  h  b;  divide  the  arch  7  rt  8  into  any  number 
of  parts,  and  through  the  points  of  division  draw  straight  lines,  as  I  2,34,56  parallel  to 
h  1) ;  from  the  points  in  which  those  lines  meet  the  line  7  8,  draw  lines  at  right  angles  to 
7  8  to  meet  the  line  9  10,  and  through  the  points  in  which  they  meet  9  10,  draw  straight 
lines  parallel  to  d  f\  and  efjiial  to  their  corresponding  lilies  in  A;  describe  a  curve  passing 
through  the  extremities  of  the  j)arallel  lines  in  B,  and  you  have  the  required  section. 

AN  ORTUSE  ANGLE  BEING  GIVEN,  TO  CUT  A  SEGMENT  OF  A  CYLINDER  IN  A  DIRECTION  OB- 
LIQUE TO  THE  DIAMETER  OF  THE  BASE,  AND  SO  THAT  THE  Pr.ANE  CUTTING  IT  SHALL 
MAKE  AN  OBTUSE  ANGLE  EQUAL  TO  THIi  GIVEN  ONE  WITH  THE  PLANE  THAT  COINCIDES 
WITH    THE    FLAT    SIDE    OF    THE    SEGMENT. 

Let  the  angle  b  a  fat  C  (Fig.  3.)  be  the  given  ohtiise  angle;  from  the  point  a  draw  ad 
at  right  angles  to  a  b  aiul  equal  to  the  radius  a  b  of  the  base  7  «  8  ;  through  d  draw  d  c 
parallel  to  a  h,  and  ])rodtice  af  to  meet  d  c  in  c ;  in  9  10  take  any  point,  as  c,  and  from  c 
draw  6'  /perpend  icidar  to  9  10  and  equal  to  nd  at  C;  from  cf  cut  off  e  g  equal  to  df  c  at  C, 
and  through  i,'',  and  parallel  to  7  8,  draw  i,--  d  to  meet  9  10  in  d  and  join  df;  from  (/  let 
fall  upon  7  8  the  pcrpendicidar  d  h.  and  through  g draw  g  It  parallel  to  d  b  and  join  /(  b ;  in 
A  drawany  nundjcrof  lines  parallel  to  A  b,  and  from  the  ])oints  in  which  tliev  meet  7  8,  and 
at  right  angles  lo  tliesan:e,  draw  straight  lines  to  9  10;  through  the  points  where  they  meet 
9  10,  draw  straight  Hues  parallel  to  df,  making  each  equal  to  the  line  of  the  same  name  at 


GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY.  15 

A;  through  the  extremities  of  these  parallels  trace  a  curve,  and  the  required  section 
will  be  described. 

Note. — In  looking  at  these  figures,  we  must  imagine  A  to  be  a  plane  standing  at  right 
angles  to  the  plane  7  8  10  9,  and  B  another  plane  making  with  7  8  10  9  whatever  angle 
is  sj)ecitied  in  tlie  problem.  Tiiat  the  learner  may  better  perceive  the /cA// and  xchcrc- 
furc  of  what  is  done,  and  tlie  correctness  of  the  result  obtained,  it  will  be  well  (or  him 
to  draw  the.se  figures  on  some  stiff  kind  of  paper,  and  tiien  cut  them  out,  and  bend  the 
parts  A  and  B  so  as  to  make  them  form,  with  7  8  10  9,  tjje  angles  required.  A  must,  in 
all  these  figures,  stand  at  right  aUi^les  to  7  8  10  9,  but  in  the  first  of  tliem,  B  must  form 
a  right  angle  with  that  plane;  in  the  second,  the  acute  angle  b  a  f\  and  in  the  third,  the 
obtuse  angle  6  a  f.  By  making  the  planes  A  and  B  form  the  required  angles,  the  learn- 
er will  see  that  if  planes  were  made  to  pass  through  the  j)arallels  in  A,  they  would,  if 
produced,  pass  through  the  parallels  in  B,  the  plane  belonging  to  each  ptu-allel  in  A, 
passing  through  the  corresponding  parallel  in  B, 

PL.  8. 

TO  FIND  THE  SECTION  OF  A   SEMI-GLOBE,  WHEN    IT    IS  CUT   BY  A  PLANE  AT  RIGHT  ANGLES 

TO   ITS   BASF:,  OR  FLAT  SIDE. 

Let  the  circle  a  (//(Plate  VIll  Fig.  1.)  represent  a  semi-globe  with  its  flat  side  up- 
permost, and  let  the  straight  line  c  d  represent  the  edge  of  a  plane  cutting  the  semi-gUibe 
at  right  angles  to  its  flat  side;  bisect  c  d  in  1,  and  from  1,  as  centre,  with  1  c  or  1  d  lor 
radius,  describe  the  semicircle  c  g  d;  c  g  d  is  the  section  required. 

ANOTHER  METHOD  OF  DOING  THE  SAME  THING. 

Let  the  circle  rt  f//  (Fig.  1.)  and  the  line  cd  represent  the  same  thing  asWfore; 
draw  the  diameter  a  h.  and  from  the  centre  e,  with  the  distance  from  e  to  the  centre  of 
the  line  c  d,  that  is  with  c  1  for  radius,  describe  an  arc  1  I,  so  as  to  meet  I  (/  and  c  b ; 
from  the  same  centre  with  different  radii,  describe  concentric  arcs,  as  2  2,  3  3,  «S;c.  to 
meet  the  same  lini-s  1  d,  c  o,  and  from  the  points  1,  2,  3,  &c.  in  which  the  arcs  meets  the 
semi-diameter  c  b,  draw  ,)erpendiculars,  as  I  1,2  2,  &c.  to  the  circumference;  from  the 
points  in  which  those  arcs  meet  the  line  1  d,  draw  the  j>erpendiculars  1  1,2  2,  &c.,  equal 
in  length  to  tliose  of  the  same  name  on  e  b  :  through  the  extreniities  of  the  perpendic- 
ulars on  1  d,  and  those  that  may  by  a  similar  process  be  erected  on  1  c,  describe  the 
curve  c  g  d :  c  a  d  is  the  section  required. 

]VoTE. — The  learner  will  see  tliat  the  semicircle  c  g  d  represents  that  face  of  the  piece 
a  c  df,  or  of  the  ])iece  c  It  d,  which  is  made  by  cutting  through  the  .semi-ilobe  at  c  d  \n 
a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  flat  side  of  the  semi-globe.  A  moment's  reflection,  with- 
out anv  demonstration,  will  convince  him  that  whenever  a  send-globe  is  cut  at  right  an- 
gles to  its  flat  side,  the  face  produced  by  the  cutting  will  be  a  semicircle,  of  which  the 
straight  line  that  designates  the  place  of  cutting,  will  be  the  base  or  diameter.  When, 
therefore,  this  straight  line  is  given,  (as  it  always  is,)  the  learner  has  only  to  describe  a 
semicircle  upon  it,  to  find  the  sliape  and  size  of  the  face  required.  That  he  may  clearly 
perceive  the  accuracy  of  the  second  method,  let  him  imagine  the  semi-globe  to  be  cut 
through,  perpendicularly  to  its  flat  side,  at  a  b  as  well  as  at  c  d,  and  the  quarter-globe  a 
fb  lo  be  turned  up  atrii^ht  angles  to  the  face  a  It  b:  he  will  then  see  that  the  lines  1  1, 
2  2,  &.C.  on  the  face  ajf  b  are  the  perpendicular  distance  of  the  j)oints  1,  2,  &c.  in  the 
spherical  surface  from  the  flat  side  of  the  .semi-globe;  and  that  since  the  points  1,  2  &.c, 
in  cd,  are  at  the  same  distance  from  the  centre  c  as  the  points  1,  2  &c.  in  a  b,  the  per- 
pendiculars from  1,  2,  &c.  in  c  (/  to  the  spherical  surface  must  be  of  the  same  length  with 


16  GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 

the  perpendiculars  from  1,  2,  &c.  in  a  b  to  the  spherical  surface;  in  other  words,  that  (he 
lines  1  1,2  2,  &c.  on  the  face  of  c  g  d,  must  be  equal  in  length  to  I  ] ,  2  2,  &c.  on  o  fb. 

The  required  sections  in  Figures  2.  3.  and  4.  are  found  by  the  second  method  of  the 
preceding  Problem.  In  l*'igure  3.  tlie  solid  to  be  cut  is  snpposed  to  have  a  circular  base', 
but  an  elliptical  elevation;  and  A  at  Figure  4.  represents  an  ogee  standing  on  a  circular 
base,  and  from  ii  B  is  found  by  the  method  just  mentioned. 

A  SEMI-GLOBE  BEING  CUT  BY  A  CYLINDRICAL  SURFACK  AT  RIGHT  ANGLES  TO  ITS  FLAT 
SIDE,  TO  FIND  THE  FORM  AND  SIZE  OF  A  VENEER,  OR  COVERING,  TO  BE  BENT  HOUND 
THE    SECTION. 

Let  the  circle  a  b  d  c  (Fig.  5.)  represent  a  semi-globe,  and  the  arc  a  b,  a  cylindrical 
surface  cutting  the  semi  globe  at  rigbt  angles  to  its  tlat  side;  draw  the  diameter  c  d,  and 
bi.sect  the  arc  a  6  in  I  ;  from  c  tlic  (;entre  of  the  globe,  with  c  1  for  radius,  describe  the 
arc  1  1,  and  enlarging  the  radius,  describe  al.so  the  arcs  2  2,  3  3,  &c. ;  from  the  ])oints  1, 
2,  &c  in  which  the  arcs  meet  ed,  draw  to  the  circumference  of  the  circle  the  perpendic- 
ulnrs  1  1,2  2,  &c. ;  obtain  the  length  of  (he  arc  o  b,  and  place  it  in  a  straight  line  o  b  at 
B,  and  divide  the  straiglit  line  a  b,  so  that  if  bent  round  the  arc  a  b,  its  divisions  would 
correspond  with  those  made  in  that  arc  by  (he  arcs  1  1,2  2,  &c. ;  (rom  I  in  the  straight 
line  a  b,  corresponding  with  I  in  the  arc  a  6,  draw  the  perpendicular  1  1,  equal  to  1  1  at 
A  ;  from  2  the  perpendicular  2  2,  equal  to  2  2  at  A  ;  and  so  on  ;  (race  a  curve  through 
the  extremities  of  these  perpendiculars,  and  you  will  have  the  required  covering  or  veneer. 

TO  FIND  THE    RIRS    OF    A  GOTHIC    NICHE,   WHEN    THE    PLAN    AND    THE    FKO.NT    ELEVATION 

ARE  GIVEN. 

Let  2  6  8  (Fig.  6  )  be  the  plan  and  a  b  c  the  front  elevation  of  a  Gothic  niche ;  at  H,  I,  J, 
and  K,  draw  the  bases  I  3,  I  4,  I  5,  I  6,  respectively  equal  lo  the  bases  I  3,  I  4,  1  5,  1 
6  in  the  plan  ;  divide  the  base  1  a  (Fig.  6.)  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  as  6,  and  from 
the  points  of  division  I,  2,  &c.  erect  the  perpendiculars  I  1,  2  2,  &.C.,  divide  (he  bases  at 
H,  I,  .},  and  K  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  I  a  was  divided  into,  and  from  (he  points  of 
division  erect  the  perpendiculars  I  1,  2  2,  &c.,  each  equal  to  the  perpeiuliculars  ol'  (he 
same  name  on  I  a;  through  the  ends  of  these  perpendiculars,  trace  curves,  and  the  ribs 
for  half  the  niche  will  be  completed., 

PL.  9. 

TO    DRAAV    THE    LINING    OF  A    CYLINDRICAL    SOFFIT    CUTTING    PERPENDICULARLY    INTO    A    FLAT 
WALL  WHICH   DOES   NOT  STAND  PERPENDICULAR  TO  A  HORIZONTAL    BASE. 

I.,et  (he  line  4  1  (Phi(e  IX.  B.)  be  a  horizontal  base,  or  the  level  of  (he  ground;  at  the 
point  1,  make  the  angle  4  1  2  equal  to  the  iiiclinatioii  of  the  wall,  and  make  the  line  I  2 
equal  to  the  radius  of  the  cylindrical  soffit,  and  from  2  let  fall  the  perpendicular  2  3; 
with  1  2  at  B  for  radius,  describe  the  semicircle  fA  c,  (l''ig.  1  )  and  on  llie  diameter  /  c, 
with  the  distance  3  I  at  B  liir  (he  width,  dcscriiie  (either  by  means  of  ordinates,  as  in 
the  Figure,  or  by  any  of  the  methods  pointed  out  in  this  book  (the  .semi-ellipsis/^'-  c; 
divide  the  arc/4  fl  inio  any  number  of  equal  p;u(s,  as  eighl,  and  from  the  points  ol  di- 
Yision  1,  2,  «S;c.  let  fall  upon/'t'  the  perpendiculars  I  d,  2  c,  &c.  and  jirodlice  them  to  the 
curve  Vmo.  fge;  take  that  part  of  the  perpendiculars  which  is  in(ercep(edbetween  (he 
strniLjIit  Wncfc  and  (he  curve/if  c,  and  in  the  straight  line  4  1  at  B,  make  4  5  equal  to 
llie  intercepled  p.-uM  d  d  at  Fig.  I.;  5  (3  equal  to  c  c;  6  7  equal  {abb;  and  7  8  equal  to  a 
g]  from  2  draw  2  4  at  right  angles  to  2   1;  and- from  the  points  5,  6,  7,  8  in  the  line  4  I, 


GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY.  17 

draw  the  jjerpendiculars  5  12,  6  11,  &c.  to  meet  the  line  4  2;  take  the  stretchout  or 
ieiiij^th  of  the  arc/  4  e  at  Fig.  1.,  and  place  it  in  a  straight  line  ti  b  at  C,  and  make  divi- 
sions in  a  b  corresponding  with  the  divisions  in  fie;  from  the  points  of  division  d,  c,  b, 
&c.  erect  the  perpendicidars  d  d,  c  c,  b  b,  &c.  and  make  d.  d  equal  to  4  12  at  B;  c  c  equal 
to  12  11  ;  b  b  equal  to  II  10,  and  so  on;  do  tiie  same  with  tlie  other  half  of  a  b,  and 
through  the  ends  of  those  perpendiculars  describe  the  curve  a  ah. 

THE    BASE    OR    PLAN    AND    ONE    OF    THE    COMMON    RIBS    OF     TllE    ROOF     OF     A     HEXAGON     BEING 
GIVEN    TO    FIND    THE    ANGLE    OR    HIP    RIBS,    AND    THE    COVERING    OF    THE    ROOF. 

Let  the  licxagon  5  6  7  8  9  10  (Fig.  2  )  be  the  given  plan,  and  let  the  part  B  of  Fig.  2. 
be  the  given  conunon  rib,  of  which  the  line  o  5  is  the  base;  divide  tlie  rib  B  into  any 
number  of  equal  parts,  as  four,  and  through  the  points  of  division  1,  2,  &c.  and  parallel  to 
the  side  6  7  of  the  hexagon,  draw  the  lines  1  2,  2  3,  &c.  to  meet  the  base  5  7  of  the  angle 
rib  to  be  found  ;  from  the  points  2,  .3,  &c.  in  which  the  par.illels  meet  5  7,  erect  the  per- 
pendiculars 2  1,3  2,  &c.  making  2  1  equal  to  2  I  in  B,  3  2  to  3  2  in  B,  and  so  on  ;  trace 
the  curve  7  12  3  4  tlirough  the  ends  of  the  perpendiculars,  and  the  required  angle  rib  is 
found.  To  find  the  form  of  the  roof-boards,  produce  the  base  5  o  of  the  rib  B  to  1,  and 
make  0  4  equal  lo  the  stretchout  or  length  of  the  rib  B,  and  divide  it  into  as  many  equal 
■parts  as  you  did  B,  viz  four;  through  the  points  of  division  1,  2,  «Stc.  and  parallel  to  the 
side  6  7,  draw  the  lines  1  1,  2  2,  4'(:-  making  I  I  on  each  side  of  o  4  at  D  equal  to  2  2 
"between  the  bases  o  fi,  7  5;  2  2  on  each  side  of  o  4,  equal  to  3  3  between  tho.se  bases; 
and  soon;  through  theendsof  the  parallels  1  1,  2  2,  Vic.  trace  the  curve  lines  7  4,  6  4,  and 
the  figure  6  4  7  at  lOis  the  covering  for  one  side  of  the  hexagon  roof 

AN    ARCH    OP    ANY    FORM    BEING    GIVEN    TO    DRAW^    ARCHES    FOR    GROINS     WHETHER     RIGHT     OR 
RA.MPANT,    THAT    SHALL    BE    SIMILAR    TO    THE    GIVEN    ARCH. 

Let  0  4  8  (Fig.  3.)  be  a  given  arch  of  a  Gothic  form;  bisect  it  in  4,  and  draw  the  chord 
o  4;  divide  o  4  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  as  four,  and  through  the  points  of  divi- 
sion 1,  2,  «&c.,  and  from  the  centre  p  of  the  base  o  8,  draw  the  lines  p  7,2)  6,  &c.  to  meet 
the  arc  o  4 ;  from  o,  and  at  right  angles  to  o  8,  draw  a  straight  line  o  3  of  any  length,  and 
through  the  points  7  6,  &c.  in  which  the  lines  ^j  7,  p  6,  &c.  meet  the  arc  o  4,  draw  from 
the  vertex  4  the  lines  4  1,  4  2,  &c.  meeting  tlie  perpendicular  o  3  in  1,  2,  &c.  ;  take  any 
base  0  8  at  A,  and  bisect  it  in  />,  and  from  p  draw  the  perpendicular  j)  4  equal  to^j  4  in 
Fig  3. ;  from  the  extremities  of  the  base  o  8  erect  the  perpendiculars  o  3,  8  3,  and  divide 
them  so  that  the  parts  o  1,  8  1,  shall  each  be  equal  to  o  1  in  the  perpendicular  at  Fig.  3.; 
the  parts  1  2,  1  2,  equal  to  1  2  in  the  perpendicular  at  Fig.  3. ;  and  so  on  ;  from  the  points 
of  division  in  the  perpendiculars  o  3,  8  3,  draw  the  lines  1  4,  2  4,  &c.  to  the  point  4,  and 
join  0  4,  8  4;  divide  the  straight  lines  o  4,  8  1  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  the  chord  o4 
in  Fig.  3.  was  divided  into,  viz.  four,  and  through  tlie  points  of  division  1,  2,  &c.  in  these 
lines,  draw  from  p  the  lines  p  7,  p  6,  &c.  to  meet  the  lines  1  4,  2  4,  &c. ;  through  tln^ 
points  7,  6,  &c.  in  which  they  intersect  these  lines,  trace  the  curves  o  4,  8  4,  and  the  arch 
o  4  8  at  A  is  similar  to  the  given  arch  o  4  8  at  Fig.  3. 

In  the  same  manner  may  the  rampant  arch  at  B  be  drawn,  with  this  difference  only, 

that  the  lines  o  3,  ;j4, 8  3  are  drawn  perpendicular,  not  to  the  base  o  8,  but  to  a  horizontal  base. 

The  heptagon  at  Fig.  4  represents  tiie  plan  of  a  heptagon  roof;  A  is  a  common  rib  having 

the  line  o5  for  its  base;  B  is  an  angle  rib  drawn  from  A  in  the  same  manner  as  the  angle  rib 

in  Fig.  2.;  and  C  is  the  covering  for  one  side  of  the  roof,  and  is  found  as  in  Fig.  2. 

D  is  also  a  covering  of  the  same  dimensions  with  C,  and  may  be  formed  in  the  same 
manner. 

5 


18  GEOMETRY    ADAPTED   TO    PRACTICAL   CARPENTRY. 

TO    FIND    THE    COVERING    OF    A    HEMISPHERICAL    DOME. 

Let  the  circle  16  5  (Fig-  5.)  represent  tlie  base  of  tlie  dome;  at  F  draw  the  line  5  4 
equal  to  the  width  of  any  board  which  you  would  make  a  part  of  the  covering;  bisect  5 
4  in  0  and  from  o  erect  tJie  perpendicular  o  4  equal  to  the  length  or  stretchout  of  a  quar- 
ter of  the  circiunference  1  G  5 ;  on  5  4  describe  tlie  semi-circle  5  4  4,  and  divide  the  quar- 
ter circumference  5  4  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  as  four,  and  from  the  points  of  di- 
vision 1,  2,  &(•,.  let  fall  upon  o  4  the  perpendiculars  11,2  2,«S;c. ;  divide  the  line  n  4  into 
as  many  equal  parts  as  you  did  the  arc  5  4,  viz.  four,  and  from  the  points  of  division  1, 
2,  &c.  erect  the  perpendiculars  1  1,  2  2,  ^c.  making  each  equal  to  the  perpendicular  of 
the  same  name  in  the  semi-circle  on  5  4,  viz.  1  1  to  I  1,  2  2  to  2  2,  &c.  from  the  same 
points  erect  perpendiculars  of  the  same  length  on  the  other  side  of  r^  4,  and  through  the 
ends  of  the  perpendiculars  on  both  sides,  trace  the  curve  lines  4  4,  5  4 :  the  board  F  has 
the  requisite  length  and  shape  for  a  part  of  the  covering  of  the  hemispherical  dome  of 
which  the  circle  1  6  5  is  the  base. 

Note. — If,  as  in  this  Figure,  the  width  of  each  board  be  made  equal  to  a  fourth  part  of 
the  stretchout  of  the  arc  1  5  or  6  5,  then  sixteen  boards  wdl  just  cover  the  dome. 

TO  FIND  THE  COVERING  OF  A  DOME  HAVING  A  CIRCULAR  BASE,  BUT  AN  ELLIPTICAL  ELEVATION- 
S' Let  0  7  (Fig  .5.  C)  be  the  height  of  the  dome,  and  let  the  arc  6  7  represent  half  of  (he 
elliptical  surface;  draw  the  chord  6  7,and  ou  the  diameter  6  I  make  6  o  equal  to  half  the 
width  of  a  given  board,  and  from  3  draw  3  4  ai  right  angles  to  6  1,  and  so  as  to  meet  the 
chord  6  7;  take  the  straight  line  1  3  at  D  equal  to  twice  6  3  at  C,  that  is,  equal  to  the 
width  of  the  given  board,  and,  bisecting  1  3  in  2,  erect  the  perpendicular  2  4  equal  to  the 
stretchout  of  the  arc  6  7  at  C ;  from  the  line  2  4  at  D,  cut  off  the  part  2  a  equal  to  the 
perpendicular  3  4  at  C,  and  with  2  a  for  the  height  and  1  3  for  the  length,  describe  (See 
Plate  VI.  Fig's.  1  2  3.)  the  segment  1  a  3;  divide  the  arc  1  a  into  any  number  of  equal 
pails,  as  four,  and  from  the  points  of  division  let  fall  upon  2  4  the  perpendicular  1  1 ,  22,  &c. 
divide  the  line  2  4  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts,  viz.  four,  and  from  the  division 
1,  2,  &c.  and  at  right  angles  to  2  4, draw  the  lines  1  I,  2  2,  &c.  equal  to  the  corresponding 
lines  in  the  segment  1  a  3,  that  is,  1  1  equal  lo  1  1 ,  2  2  to  2  2,  &c. ;  do  the  same  on  the 
other  side  of  2  4,  and  trace  curves,  and  you  will  have  in  D  the  length  and  form  of  one 
board,  for  the  covering. 

In  the  same  manner  may  be  found  the  covering  of  a  dome  having  a  circular  base  and 
an  ogee  elevation.     See  B  and  E,  Fig.  5. 

PL.  10. 

WHEN,  IN  A  CHURCH  OR  OTHER  BUILDING,  THE  TOP  OF  A  WINDOW  HAVING  A  SEMICIRCU- 
LAR HEAD,  RISES  ABOVE  THE  LEVEL  OF  THE  CEILING,  SO  THAT  TO  ADMIT  LIGHT  THROUGH 
THIS  TOP,  AN  OPENING  MUST  BE  MADE  IN  THE  CEILING,  TO  FIND  THE  FORM  AND  DIMENSIONS 
OP   AN    OPENING    FOR    THIS    PURPOSE. 

Let  the  semicircle  adc  (Plate  X.  Fig.  1 .)  represent  the  head  of  a  window;  bisect  the  arc 
adfiinc/,  and  from  cZlet  fall  upon  the  base  ae  the  perpendicular  df]  from  df  cut  off  d  g 
equal  to  the  distance  that  the  top  of  the  window  rises  above  the  ceiling,  and  through  i,'  draw 
the  chord  h  c  parallel  to  a  e;  produce  the  straight  lined  f  to  7,  and  make  g7  equal  to  b  7 
at  G ;  divide  gd  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  as  six,  and  through  the  points  of  division 
1,  2,  &.C.  draw  the  chords  I  1,2  2,  &c. parallel  to  f>  c;  divide  ,.^7into  as  many  equal  parts 
viz.  six,  and  through  the  divisions  I,  2,  &c  draw  the  straight  lines  11,2  2,«Sic.  parallel  to 
6  c,  and  make  I  1  on  each  side  of  ^  7  equal  to  I  1  on  cither  side  of  ^"-(Z;  2  2  on  each  side 


GEOMETUY  ADAITKD  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY.  19 

of  g  7,  equal  to  2  2  an  either  side  of  g  d,  and  so  on  ;  through  the  ends  of  these  parallels 
trace  the  curve  lines  b  7,  c  7,  and  you  have  in  the  figure  7  6c  the  form  of  the  aperture 
to  be  made.— To  find  tiie  ribs  of  this  aperture,  on  the  base  1  1  of  the  rib  A  with  tiie 
part  I  dof  gd  for  tlie  height,  describe  (See  Plate  VI.  Fig's  1.  2.  &c.)  the  segment  1  o  1  • 
on  2^2  at  B  (or  the  length,  with  tlie  part  2do{\g  d  for  the  height,  describe  the  segment  2 
o2;  and  so  on,  omitting,  at  every  step  downward,  one  division  more  of  the  lineg-  d,  till 
for  the  height  of  the  lowest  segment  5  o  '■>,  you  have  left  only  the  highest  division  of  g 
rf,  viz^  5  d:  the  arcs  1  rj  1,  2r>2,  3  o  3,  &c.  constitute  the  inner  or  concave  edges  of  the 
ribs  A,B,  C,  &c.  the  outer  edge  of  vviiich  may  be  bounded  by  a  curve,  or  bv  straiirht  lines 
as  in  the  figure.  '         j  &  . 

Another  and  perhaps  a  shorter  way  of  finding  the  ribs  is  to  take/  a  ovfc  (or  radius 
and  (rom  the  ends  1,  1  of  tiie  base  I  1  at  A,  describe  arcs  cutting  eachother  and  the  line 
^  /  at  8;  the  point  8  will  be  the  centre,  and/«  or  fe  the  radius,  for  describing  the  arc 
1  0  1,  that  IS,  the  rib  A.  From  the  ends  of  the  otfier  bases,  2  2,  3  3,  &c.  and  witii  the 
same  radius,  make  intersections  of  arcs  on  g  7,  org  7  produced,  and  you  will  find  the 
centres  for  describing  all  the  other  arcs,  2  o  2,  3  o  3,  &c. 

TO  DRAW  AN  ELLIPTICAL  RIB  BY  ME.'i.NS  OF  A  dUADRANT. 

Let  6  6  (Fig  2  be  half  the  length,  and  6  7,  at  right  angles  to  6  G,  half  the  width  of 
the  ellipsis  of  which  the  required  rib  will  be  a  part ;  with  half  the  length  6  6  as  radius 
make  at  A  the  quadrant  6  6  7;  divide  the  base  6  7  into  any  number  of  equal  parts  as 
si.K,  and  draw  the  perpendiculars  1  1,2  2,  &c. ;  divide  the  base  6  7  in  Fig.  2  into  as 
many  equal  parts,  viz.  six,  and  from  the  points  of  division  1,  2  &c.  erect  the  perpendicu- 
lars 1  2,  2  2,  &c.  making  1  1  equal  to  1  1  at  A,  2  2  equal  to  2  2  at  A,  &c.  and  throuo-h 
the  ends  of  the  perpendiculars. trace  the  curve  6  7:  the  curve  6  7  is  the  concave  ed-re "of 
the  required  rib.— If  the  rib  is  to  be  backed,  that  i.s,  have  a  portion  of  one  edge  hewn  off 
so  as  (o  make  it  range  with  some  other  edge,  and  if  7  8  (Fig.  2)  be  the  width  that  is  to 
be  taken  o»,  from  the  points  in  which  tlie  perpendiculars  already  dra^vn  meet  the  arc  6  7 
draw  the  perpendiculars  11,22  &c.  each  equal  to  7  8,  and  through  the  ends  8  1  2  &c' 
trace  the  curve  8  6,  which  will  give  the  rib  as  required. 

TO  DO  THE  SAME  THING  BY  MEANS  OF  THE  COMPASS. 

Let  the  line  a  3  (Fig.  3.)  be  half  the  length,  and  a  h  half  the  width,  as  in  the  prece- 
ding Problem  ;  with  a  b  for  radius,  describe  from  a  the  arc  b  c,  and  divide  the  diflerence 
between  a  b  and  a  3,  viz.  c  3,  into  3  equal  parts,  and  make  c  I  equal  to  one  of  those  parts- 
produce  o  a  to  d,  and  make  a  d,  a  e  each  equal  to  the  other  four  parts  3  /;  from  d  and 
e  as  centres,  with  d  e  for  radius,  describe  arcs  cutting  each  other  at/  and  through  /"and  e 
draw  a  straight  hnefg,  unlimited  tow^ards  o-;  /"is  the  centre  and  fb  the  radius  for  de- 
scribing the  arc  -  b,  and  e  (he  centre  and  e  3  the  radius  for  describing  the  arc  3  -—If 
the  width  3  4  IS  to  be  taken  off  to  make  the  rib  range  with  A,  make  e  i  equal  to  3  4  and 
through/ draw/A  parallel  to  3  a  and  equal  to  3  4  ;  through  h  and  i  drawhk,  unlimited 
tovvards  k:  li  and  i  are  the  centres  and  h  in,  i  4  the  radii  for  describing  the  arcs  kb  A-  4 

h  igure  4.  is  drawn  in  the  same  manner  with  Fig.  3  and  therefore  needs  no  explanation. 

PL.  11. 

ONE  RIB  OF  AN  ELLIPTICAL  DOME,  THE  PLAN  OF  AN  OBLONG  OPENING  OF  A  STAIRCASE,  AND 
THE  PLAN  OF  AN  ELLIPTICAL  OPENING  AT  THE  TOP  FOR  A  SKY-LIGHT,  BEING  GIVEN,  TO  FIND 
THE  OTHER  RIBS,  AND  ALSO  THE  SPRINGING  CURVE  ON  EACH  SIDE  OF  THE  OPENING  OF  THE 
STAIRCASE  FOR  THE   RIBS  TO  STAND  UPON. 

Let  the  arch  at  F,  (Plate  XL)  having  its  base  and  height  eachequal  to  half  the  width 


^     >  GEOMliTRy    ADAPTliD   TO    PUACTICAL   CARPENTRY. 

of  the  ellipsis  efgh,  be  the  given  rib,  of  which  the  part  over  5  j'  is  all  that  is  wanted  ;  let 
the  obloiii:;  a  h  c  <l  represent  (lie  ()[)eniiig  of  the  staircase,  and  the  small  ellipsis  at  A,  the 
opeiiiii^^  at  the  top  lor  a  sky-liglil,  and  let  the  lines  that  converge  towards  A  represent  ribs. 
'Jo  lind  any  one  rib,  as  I,  take  the  height  of  F,  that  is  the  distance/?,  A  or/ A  lor  half  thd 
conjugate  axis,  and  the  distance  between  the  point  where  the  required  rib  is  to  meet  the 
ellipsis  <;/':,'• /t  and  lliei)oiiil  A,  that  is,  (/A,  lor  half  the  transverse  axis  and  describe  (See 
Plate  V.  Fig's.  I  '^.  &.c.)  the  quarter  of  an  ellipsis;  from  the  point  rti  in  which  the  base 
d  A  meets  the  small  ellipsis,  erect  a  periiendicular  and  ])roduce  it  so  as  to  n;eet  (he  arch 
of  the  quarter-ellipsis:  the  part  over  (/  in  is  all  th;it  is  wanted  of  this  rib.    In  like  manner 
for  any  other  rib,  describe  a  quarter-ellipsis  wilh  k  A  for  its  width,  and  the  distance  Irom 
the  point  A  (o  Avhere  tlie  rib  meets  the  ellipsis  cfg  h  lor  i(s  lengdi,  and  (he  puit  (hat  is 
pi'ipeudicularlv  over  that  pordon  of  (he  base  in(ercep(ed  between  one  side  ol  (he  obhmg 
and  the  circumference  of  the  small  elli|)sisat  A,  will  be  the  part  that  is  vvan'ed  of  the  rib. 
"Tl'Ikis  G  is  a  quarter-ellipsis  having  (he  distance /i  A  ibr  its  widdi,  and  thedistanceg- A  or  e 
A  !or  its  length,  and  the  part  over  4  k  is  all  that  is  wanted  of  it.     H  is  the  same  with  G. 
D  corresponds   with  1,  and  J  with  V.      B  and  C  repres-ent  the  ribs  of  one  side  and  end 
of  the  oblong  opening,  with  the  springing  curves  on  which   lliey  stand,  and  (he  jdate  at 
the  base  of  the  sky-light  into  which  they  enter.     To  find  the  spriiigirg  curves,  take  half 
.the  width  of  the  oblong  opening,  viz   b  4  or  c  4,  and  with  it  for  radius  -describe  the  semi- 
circle at  C  for  the  springing  curve  on  that  or  the  opposite  side;  and   for  the  springing 
curve  on  the  side  a  6  or  rf  c  of  the  opening,  describe  the  quarter-ellipsis  at  B,  having  the 
same  height  wiih  the  semi-circle  at  C,  and  a  length  equal  to  that  of  the  opening. 

iXoTE. — If  any  learner  should  fail  to  obtain  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  problem  from 
the  foregoing  explanations,  and  from  an  examiamtion  of  the  figure,  let  him  imagine  an 
elliptical  dome  to  rest  upon  the  ellipsis  cfs:  h,  such  that  its  base  or  flat  side  exactly  fills 
up  or  corresponds  with  that  ellipsis,  and  that  its  altitude  is  just  equal  to  half  (he  wid(h 
of  its  base,  so  that  a  curve  line  drawn  from  h  to  /'  on  tiie  dome  and  through  the  top  of 
it  shall,  with  a  s(raiglit  line  joining  those  points  on  the  base,  make  asemi-cirele  ;  let  him 
also  imagine  curve  lines,  corresponding  with  the  straight  ones  in  the  Figure,  to  be  drawn 
on  the  elliptical  elevation,  cutting  each  other  at  the  top  or  vert-ex;  and  he  will  see,  that 
■while  the  curve  drawn  from  h  to/ is  a  semi-circle,  the  curve  drawn  from  any  other  point 
whatever  to  its  opposite  point,  is  a  semi-ellipsis.  Hence  the  propriety  of  making  the 
rib  F  or  J  a  quadrant,  and  every  other  one  a  quarter-ellipsis  having  the  same  height 
with  F.  Next  let  the  learner  imagine  a  piece  cut  olT  from  the  top  of  the  elliptical  dome 
arid  tiie  face  made  by  the  cutting  may  be  considered  the  base  of  the  sky  light.  Then 
lei  him  suppose  curves  similar  to  those  at  B  and  C  drawn  on  the  sides,  and  ends  of 
what  is  left  of  the  dome,  and  he  will  see  the  reason  why  parts  only  of  the  different  ribs 
found  are  taken,  and  why  such  parts  are  taken  as  are,  rather  than  others.  If  the  stu- 
dent finds  all  this  loo  great  a  task  for  his  imagination,  let  him  with  his  knife  make  a  small 
elliptical  dome,  such  as  I  have  described,  and  let  him  draw  the  curve  lines  on  it  for  ribs, 
and  cut  ofl  the  piece,  and  describe  the  springing  curves,  and  he  will  at  once  obtain  a 
satisfactory  and  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Problem. 

PL.  12. 

THE  BODY  AND  SIDE  ARCHES  OF  AN  UNDER  PITCH  GROIN    KEING  GIVEN,  TO  FIND  A  MOULD 

FOR  THE  INTERSECTING  RIBS. 

Let  E  (Plate  XII.  Fig.  1)  represent  the  body  arch,  and  F  the  side  arch,  of  an  under 
pitch  groin,  and  A,  B,  C,  and  D,  the  piers  on  which  the  arches  rest;  bisect  the  arch  F 
in  4,  and  divide  the  half  towards  B  into  any  number  of  equal  \'-  its,  as  four;  from  the 
divisions  1,  2,  3,  4,  let  fall  perpendiculars  upon  the  base  8  9  of  the  arch  F,  and  produce 


GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY.  21 

tliein  at  pleasure  ;  from  the  same  puir.ts  1 ,  2,  «Stc.  draw  the  lines  4  4,  3  3,  &c.  parallel  to  the 
base  8  9,  and  meeting  a  b  produced,  in  the  points  4,  3,  &c. ;  from  o  as  centre,  with  o  1,  o 
2,  &c:  for  radii,  describe  arcs  so  as  to  cut  8  9  produced,  and  from  the  points  where  they 
cut  it,  and  parallel  to  the  base  a  />,  draw  straight  lines  to  meet  the  arch  E;  from  the 
points  4,  3,  &c.  in  which  they  meet  that  arch,  let  fail  perpendiculars  upon  a  h,  and  pro- 
duce them  till  they  meet  tiie  perpendiculars  from  tlie  divisions  in  F,  through  the  points 
of  intersection  I,  2,  3,  &c.  trace  the  curve  1  4  for  the  place  of  the  intersecting  ribs  upon 
the  plan;  through  the  intersections  of  corresponding  orilinates  from  K  and  F,  continue 
the  curve  1  4  to  the  pier  D,  and  on  each  side  of  this  curve  describe  another  parallel  to 
it,  for  the  thickness  of  the  rib  upon  the  plan;  bisect  the  inner  curve  in  4,  and  from  4 
draw  chords  to  the  extremities  of  the  curve,  and  parallel  to  these  chords  draw  two 
straight  lines  so  as  to  touch  the  outer  curve,  and  the  distance  between  these  parallels 
will  he  the  width  of  plank,  or  other  stuff,  necessary  for  the  required  ribs ;  from  the  points 
1,  2,  lie.  in  the  curve  I  4,  let  fall  perpendiculars  upon  the  chord  I  4,  and  produce  them 
to  the  points  1  2,  &c.  nudiing  the  part  produced  1  I  equal  to  1  I  at  F;  2  2  equal  to  2  2 
at  F,  &c. ;  througii  the  ends  oi  these  perpendiculars  trace  a  curve  line :  G  is  a  mould  for 
the  intersecting  ribs.     H  is  the  same  as  G.  and  found  in  the  same  manner. 

TO  FIND  THE  ANCLE  MOULD,  OR  A  MOULD  WHICH,  WHEN   BENT  UNDER  THE  INTEKSECTING 
RIBS,  WILL  GIVE  THE   TRUE  PLACE  OF  THE  ANGLE  UPON  THE  PLAN. 

Obtain  the  stretchout  or  length  of  the  under  or  concave  edge  of  G,  and  place  it  in  a 
straight  line  o  4;  (Fig.  2.)  divide  o  4  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  half  the  arch  F  is  divi- 
ded into,  viz.  four,  and  from  the  points  of  division  draw  straight  lines  perpendicular  to 

0  4;  and  respectively  equal  to  tiie  straight  lines  at  I  intercepted  between  the  curve  1  4, 
and  the  chord  1  4  ;  that  is,  make  I  1  in  Fig  2  equal  to  I  1  at  I;  2  2  equal  to  2  2  at  I ; 
and  so  on  ;  trace  a  curve  through  the  ends  of  the  perpendiculars  on  o  I,  and  the  required 
moid<t  is  found. 

TO  P.ANGE  THE  RIBS,   SO  THAT   THEY  WILL  STAND  PERPENDICULARLY  OVER   THE  PLAN. 

From  the  points  1,  2,  &c.  in  which  the  straight  lines  from  the  arch  E  meet  the  base 

1  4  of  H,  and  perpendicular  to  that  base,  draw  the  dotted  lines  I  1,2  2,  &c.  and  make 
them  respectively  equal  to  those  of  the  sanje  name  at  F  ,  through  the  ends  of  these 
dotted  perpendiculars,  describe  the  curve  o  4,  and  it  will  show  how  much  is  to  be  bevel- 
ed off  IVoni  the  rib  H.    The  ranging  of  G  is  f<nmd  in  the  same  manner. 

J  and  K  are  angle  ribs,  and  are  like  (i  and  H,  except  that  they  are  drawn  as  already 
bevelled  off.  Fig.  3.  shows  the  clitfert;nt  parts  of  Fig.  1.  in  a  more  connected  form,  as 
well  as  some  otiier  parts  belonging  to  an  under  pitch  groin.  The  body  arch  E  will  stand 
perpendicularly  over  n,  and  the  side  arch  F  will  stand  over  m.  L  is  a  part  t)f  the  arch 
E,  and  will  stand  over  o,  and  be  connected  with  the  angle  ribs.  The  parallel  rows  of 
double  lines  in  R  represent  the  lath  beams  of  the  arch,  a,  b,  and  c  are  jack  ribs,  and 
their  places  are  1,  2  and  3  in  Fig.  3.  The  jack  ribs  c,f,  g  and  h  belong  over  the  letters 
of  the  same  name  between  the  angle  ribs. 

PL.  13. 

TO  FIND  THE  RIBS  OF  THE  HEAD  OF  A  NICHE,  WHEN  THAT  HEAD  IS  TO  FORM  SOME  POR- 
TION OF  A  HOLLOW  SPHERE,  AND  WHEN  TUE  GROUND-PLAN  AND  THE  FRONT  RIB  ARE 
GIVEN. 

Let  the  segment  of  a  circle  at  Fig.  I.  (Plate  XIIL)  represent  the  ground-plan  or  base 
of  the  head  of  a  niche,  and  let  llie  semi-circle  at  l''ig.  2.  be  the  elevation  or  Iront  rib; 
draw  the  straight  line  n  3  (Fig.  3.)  ecpial  to  the  radius  to  x  or  w  y  at  Fig.  L  and  on  o  3 
set  off  2  3  equal  to  ^  x  at  Fig.  I. ;  at  the  point  z  in  the  line  o  3,  erect  a  perpendicular  of 

6 


22  GEOMETRY    ADAPTED    TO    PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY. 

unlimited  length,  and  with  o  3  for  radius  and  o  as  centre,  describe  an  arc  so  as  to  cut 
the  perpendicular  and  the  base  o  3:  the  part  3  .r,  intercepted  between  tlie  base  and  the 
perpendicular,  is  the  inner  edge  of  the  rib  that  will  stand  over  z  x  in  Fig.  1. — to  find  the 
rib  that  will  stand  over  A  (Fig.  1.)  take  the  same  length  v-  x  for  base,  and  from  it  cutoff 
1  3  (Fig.  4.)  equal  to  I  3  at  A ;  erect  a  perpendicular,  as  before,  and  with  the  same  radius 
w  X  or  o  3,  describe  an  arc  to  cut  the  perpendicular  and  also  the  base ;  the  arc  3  1  is  the 
concave  edge  of  the  rib  belonging  over  A.  In  the  same  manner  find  any  rib  whatever 
for  the  head  of  the  niche.— For  the  bevel  of  tlie  rib  that  is  to  stand  over  A,  take  1  7  at 
A  and  place  ii  at  1  7  in  the  base  of  Fig.  4.,  and  a  perpendicular  erected  at  7  will  cut  off 
the  part  required.  Proceed  in  the  same  way  in  the  bevelling  of  the  other  ribs: — The 
middle  curve  in  the  semi-circle  at  Fig.  2.  is  drawn  to  show  the  ranging  of  the  front  rib, 
and  the  figures  I  2,  1  2.  show  where  the  ribs  (Fig's.  4.  and  5.)  will  be  joined  to  the 
front  rib. 

PL   14. 

THE  PLAN  OF  A  NICHE   IN  A   CIRCULAR  WALL  BEING  GIVEN,  TO  FIND  THE  FRONT  RIB. 

Let  the  arc  5  o  5  (Plate  XIV.  Fig.  1.)  represent  a  part  of  the  circular  wall,  and  let  the 
crescent-like  figure  bounded  by  the  arcs  5  o  5  and  .5  ,r  5  be  the  base  or  plan  of  the  niche; 
divide  half  the  arc  5  x  5  into  any  number  of  ecjual  parts,  as  five,  and  from  the  points  of 
division  1,  2,  &c.  let  fall  upon  the  base  5  s  5  the  perpendiculars  1  1,2  2,  &:c. ;  from  the 
points  as  a  centre,  with  the  distance  s  o  for  radius,  describe  the  quarter-circumference  o 
5,  and  divide  it  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  you  did  the  arc  5  x,  viz.  five;  from  the  di- 
visions 1,  2,  «fcc,  and  parallel  to  5  s  5;  draw  the  straight  lines  1  1,  2  2,  ifcc.  to  intersect 
the  perpendiculars  from  5  .r,  and  through  the  points  in  which  corresponding  perpendicu- 
lars meet,  trace  the  elliptical  curve  5  o;  take  the  stretchout  of  the  arc  ."J  x  5  and  place  it 
in  the  straight  line  5  o  5  at  Fig.  3  and  make  divisions  iu  each  half  of  5  o  5,  correspond- 
ing with  those  in  the  arc  5  .?; ;  (Fig.  I.)  at  the  divisions  1,  2,  &c.  in  5  o  5,  erect  perpen- 
diculars respectively  equal  to  the  straight  lines  a  \,  h2  &c.  intercepted  between  the  face 
of  the  wall,  5  o,  and  the  elliptical  curve  5  2  o;  that  is,  make  a  \  in  Fig.  3.  equal  to  o  1 
in  Fig  L,  6  2  to  i  2,  &c.,  and  through  the  ends  of  the  perpendiculars  trace  the  curve  5 
d  c  h  a  0,  and  so  on  the  other  side  of  the  point  o;  parallel  lo  5  o  5  draw  the  straight  line 
5  6  for  the  thickness  of  the  ribs  at  the  end  ands  middle,  and  you  will  have  a  mould  (Fig. 
3.)  for  finding  the  front  rib  and  its  place  over  the  plan.— When  this  mould  is  bent 
under  the  front  rib,  its  curved  side  will  coincide  with  the  front  edge  of  the  rib,  thai  is, 
with  the  curvature  of  the  wall.  Fig's.  4  5.  and  6,  are  the  back  ribs,  belonging  over  D, 
C,  and  D,  in  Fig.  1,  and  are  found  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  preceding  problem. — 
Fig.  2.  represents  the  front  rib,  with  the  back  ribs  attached  to  it.  Its  curvature,  as  also 
that  of  the  back  ribs,  is  the  same  with  that  of  the  springing  curve  H,  in  Fig.  1.  To  ob- 
tain a  just  and  clear  conception  of  the  position  of  the  front  rib,  when  elevated,  let  the 
learner  imagine  it  laid  upon  the  springing  curve  H,  so  as  to  coincide  w  ith  that  curve  in 
every  part,  and  then,  while  H  remains  in  a  horizontal  position,  let  him  suppose  the  front 
rib,  its  ends  turning  on  the  ends  of  H,  to  be  raised  up  till  the  front  edge  eonies  into 
exact  range  with  the  bend  of  (he  wall,  that  is,  with  (he  arc  5  o  ?>.  In  (his  ])osi(ion,  (he 
opening  between  this  rib  and  the  plane  on  which  ii  stands,  will  be  an  elliptical  opening, 
though  the  rib  itself  has  tlie  curve  of  a  semi-circle;  and  this  explains  why,  in  the  pro- 
cess of  finding  a  mould  for  the  front  rib,  some  of  the  curves  described  are  elliptical  ones. 
If  the  front  rib  where  to  be  raised  so  as  to  sUuid  perpendicularly  over  the  chord  5  s  5,  it  is  ev- 
ident that  the  back  ribs,  standing  as  they  will  on  (he  s[)ringing  curve  H,  would  not  shoof 
far  enough  over  to  come  in  contact  witJi  the  front  rib;  and  it  would  therefore  be  neces- 
sary to  let  this  rib  fall  back  towards  a  horizontal  position  till  it  came  in  contact  with  the 
back  ribs.     This  falling  back  is  represented  by  the  dotted  lines  s  u  and  jo  o  in  Fig.  4. — 


GEOMKTRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY.  23 

The  short  line  z  t  represents  the  front  of  the  rib,  when  it  is  cut  so  as  to  range  with  the 
bend  of  the  wall ;  and  z  u  represents  it  when  so  cut  as  not  to  range  with  the  wall.  The 
junction  of  the  front  with  the  back  rib  is  at  v  xc.  To  know  at  what  angle  to  bevel  the 
ends  of  the  mould.  (Fig.  3.)  from  o,  and  perpendicular  to  the  line  5  o  5,  draw  the  line  o  s 
equal  to  o  s  in  Fig.  i.;  join  s  5,  and  at  right  angles  to  s  5  draw  a  straight  line,  5  6,  of 
any  length:  the  line  5  6  gives  the  bevel  of  the  end  of  the  mould  If  you  would  have  the 
front  rib  of  an  equal  thickness  all  round,  erect  perpendiculars  at  the  points  1,  2,  &c.  in  the 
straight  line  5  5,  (Fig.  3.;  or  at  the  same  points  in  the  line  5  6,  and  on  that  side  of  5  5  or 
of  5  G,  which  is  opposite  the  curved  side  of  the  mould;  make  these  perpendiculars  equal, 
each  to  each,  to  the  straight  lines  intercepted  between  tiie  front  elliptical  line  5  2  o 
(Fig.  1.)  and  the  dotted  line  above  it;  that  is,  at  o,  (Fig.  3.)  or  at  the  point  directly  over 
0,  erect  a  perpendicular  equal  to  o  c  in  Fig.  1. ;  at  I  in  Fig.  3.,  a  perpendicular  equal  to  I 
1  in  Fig.  1.;  and  so  on;  a  curve  traced  through  the  ends  of  these  perpendiculars  will  be 
parallel  to  the  curved  side,  5  d  c  i>  ao,  of  the  mould. 

PL.  15. 

TO  FIND  THE  RIBS  OF  THE   HEAD  OF    A  NICHE,  THE    PLAN    AND    ELEVATION  OF  WHICH   ARE  GIVEN 

SEGMENTS  OF  CIRCLES. 

Let  the  segment  a  c  b  (Plate  XV.  Fig.  1.)  be  the  plan,  having  the  point  e  the  centre 
of  the  circle  of  which  it  is  a  segment;  and  let  the  segment  ac  b  (Fig.  2.)  be  tlie  elevation, 
having^ for  the  centre  of  the  circle  to  which  it  belongs ;  through  the  centre  c,  and  parallel 
to  the  chord  a  b,  draw  the  diameter  b  cl,  and  complete  the  semicircle  b  c  d;  from  the 
centre  e  draw  the  straight  line  ej\  at  right  angles  to  the  diameter  h  d,  and  equal  to  df  in 
Fig.  2,  and  from/(Fig.  1.)  as  a  centre,  with  the  distance/6  or  f  d  for  radius,  describe 
the  arc  b  id :  the  arc  b  i,  rf  has  the  same  bend  or  curvature  that  the  back  ribs  will  have.  To 
know  what  part  of  this  arc  is  wanted  for  the  different  ribs  belonging  over  A,  B,  C,  and  D, 
(Fig.  1.)  either  proceed  the  same  way  as  in  the  two  preceding  problems;  or  from  e  as  a 
centre,  with  the  distance  e  I,  e  2,  e  3  and  e  4  for  radii,  decribe  arcs  so  as  to  meet  the  diam- 
eter b  d;  from  the  points  in  which  these  concentric  arcs  meet  b  d,  and' at  right  angles  to 
b  d,  draw  straight  lines  to  cut  the  arc  b  id:  of  the  arc  b  id,  6  8  is  the  part  required Ibr  the 
rib  Uiat  belongs  over  A  in  the  plan;  6  6,  the  part  wanted  for  the  rib  belonging  over  B, 
and  soon.  The  bevel  of  the  riijs  is  found  in  the  same  way  as  in  plate  XIII.  The  line 
9  10  (Fig.  3.)  shows  the  bevel  of  the  rib  that  is  to  stand  over  A  in  the  plan.  The  bevel- 
ling of  the  front  rib  (Fig.  2.)  is  shown  by  the  short  lines  b  i,  c  g.  A  and  B  (Fig.  2  )  re- 
present the  front  studs  or  joists. 

PL.  16. 

THE  PLAN  AND  ELEVATION    OF  THE  HEAD  OF  A    CIRCULAR-HEADED    SASH,  STANDING  IN  A    CIRCU- 
LAR WALL  BEING  GIVEN,  TO  FIND  A  MOULD  FOR  THE   RADICAL  BARS. 

Let  the  parallel  curves  I  3,  2  4.  (Plate  XVI.  Fig.  1 .)  represent  the  curvature  and  thick- 
ness of  the  circular  wall ;  the  curve  E  s  E,  the  inner  or  concave  edge  of  the  base  or  plan 
of  the  sash  head ;  the  arc  E  .r  E,  (Fig.  2)  the  elevation  of  the  sash  head;  the  converging 
lines  1,  2,  3,  &c.,  the  places  of  the  radical  bars;  andF,  the  arch  bar  to  which  the  radical 
bars  are  joined;  parallel  to  E  E,  draw  the  tangent  line  ic  ?(' ;  divide  the  radical  line  1  s 
(B.  Fig.  2.)  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  as  six,  (they  may  be  eoual  or  unequal,  at 
discretion,)  and  from  the  divisions  I,  2,  «Sic  let  fall  upon  E  E  perpendiculars,  and  produce 
them  till  they  meet  (he  arcs  E  s  E;  at  the  points  of  divisions  1,  2,  &c.  in  tlie  radical  line 

1  s,  erect  perpendiculars,  and  make  them  respectively  equal  to  the  straight  lines  inter- 
cepted between  the  tangent  line  w  w  and  the  arc  E  s  E  ;  that  is,  make  I  1  equal  to   1  1, 

2  2  equal  to  2  2,  &c. :  a  curve  traced  through  the  ends  of  these  perpendiculars  will  give 
one  edge  of  a  mould  for  the  radical  bar  belonging  at  B,     Proceed  in  the  same  way  for  the 


24  GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 

mould  D  of  tlie  radical  bar  belonging  at  C.  As  the  bar  belonging  at  3  (Fig.  2.)  will  be 
straight,  no  mould  is  needed  forlliat;  and  as  A,  the  niould  for  13,  will  serve  for  the  barbe- 
lonuing  at  1,  and  I)  for  the  one  belonging  at  4,  the  two  moulds  A  and  D  are  all  that  are 
wanted  in  this  case.  If  more  radical  lines  are  given,  iind  the  moulds  for  the  bars  by  the 
same  method. 

.\IETHOO  OF  FINDING  THE  FACE  MOULD  FOR   THE  HEAD  OF  THE  SASH. 

Let  the  arc  id  n  z  (Fig.  3.)  represent  the  plan  or  i)ase  of  the  sash  head  ;  the  arc  1  x  2, 
the  elevation  of  the  same;  and  the  arc  o  swat  D,  the  arch-bar;  divide  half  ilie  arc  1  .r  2, 
that  is,  divide  I  .t  into  any  number  of  parts,  as  six,  and  Irom  the  points  of  division  let 
fall  upon  the  chord  ?/;  z  the  perpendiculars  x  7,  v  6,  &c. ;  draw  the  chord  w  s  of  hall'  the 
an;  ip  s  z,  and  parallel  to  ir  s  draw  the  tangent  line  w  x;  at  the  intersections  of  the  per- 
pendiculars X  7,  ?'  G,  &c.  with  the  tangent  to  x,  erect  the  perpeiidiiulars  x  x,  v  v,  &c  ,  and 
make  x  x  equal  to  x  x,  interce[)ted  between  the  arc  1  a^'  2  and  the  chord  \  x  2,  vv  equal 
to/;  w;  and  so  on;  trace  the  curve  o  1  2  o  x.,  and  you  will  have  the  concave  edge  of 
the  lace-mould  re(|uired. 

i\oTE. — The  distance  between  the  parallels  lo  s  and  to  x  (C.  Fig.  3.)  shows  what  thick- 
ness of  stuff  will  be  necessary  for  making  the  sash-head. 

METHOD  OP  FINDI.\G  THE  VENEER  OF  THE  ARCH  BAR. 

Divide  half  the  arc  o  s  o.  viz.  s  o,  into  any  nimiber  of  parts,  as  siy,  and  from  the  divi- 
sions, let  fall  perpendiculars  upon  the  plan  h  h  of  the  arch-bar;  at  E  uraw  the  straight 
line  0  s  o,  equal  to  the  length  or  stretchout  of  the  arc  o  s  o,  and  in  the  straight  line  o  s  o 
make  divisions,  each  way  from  s,  corresponding  with  those  in  the  arc  o  s  o\  at  these  di- 
visions erect  perpendi(;ulars  equal,  each  loeacli,  to  those  intercepted  between  the  convex 
side  of  the  arc  ic  s  z  and  the  line  li  h:  a  curve  traced  thnuigh  the  ends  of  these  perpen- 
diculars will  give  the  required  veneer.  When  this  veneer,  or  covering,  is  bent  round 
the  arch-bar,  its  edges  will  coincide  with  those  of  the  bar,  and  the  letters  and  figures 
belonging  to  it,  will  stand  perpendicularly  over  those  of  the  same  name  in  the  plan  hx  h. 

METHOD  OF  FINDING  THE  MOULDS  FOR  GIVING  THE  FORM  OF  THE  SASH-IIEAD,  SO  THAT  THE 
FRONT  EDGE  SHALL  BE  PERPENDICULARLY  OVER  THE  PLAN. 

Obtain  the  stretchout  of  the  upper  or  convex  edge  of  half  the  sash-head,  and  place  it 
in  the  straight  line  ?;;  7;  (Fig.  4.)  produce  in  7  to  1,  and  make  the  part  produced.  7  1, 
equal  to  the  stretchout  of  the  concave  edge  of  half  the  sash-head;  in  the  line  7o  I  make 
divisions  corresponding  with  those  in  each  half  of  the  sash-head,  and  at  the  divisions  erect 
the  perpendiculars  1  s,  6  f,  &c.  making  them  equal,  eacli  to  each,  to  the  perpendiculars 
of  the  same  name  in  the  plan;  (Fig.  3.)  trace  the  curve  w  u  t  s  and  its  continuation  on 
the  other  side  of  7  s,  and  also  the  parallel  curve  3  10  3,  and  you  will  have  the  required 
moulds.  If  the  moul  on  the  left  of  the  line  7  10  be  bent  round  the  convex  edge  o(  half 
the  sash-head,  and  the  one  on  the  right,  under  the  concave  edge  of  the  same,  the  sash- 
hi  ad,  being  cut  by  these  moulds,  will  have  the  requisite  form;  so  that  when  executed, 
every  pan  of  it  will  coincide  with  the  bend  of  the  wall,  or,  in  other  words,  will  stand 
perpendicularly  over  its  plan. 

PL.  17, 

TO    DRAW    AN    OPEN    GROIN    .ARCH. 

Let  the  oblong  ABC  '  (Plate  XVII.)  be  the  plan  of  the  arch,  of  which  the  corners 
A,  1>  C,  and  D,  a  e  the  b  tme  .(.s;  and  let  Figs.  1   and  2  represent  the  elevations,  and 


GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 


25 


the  (liao-onals  A  C,  B  D,  the  bases  over  which  the  angle  nbs  are  to  stand ;  within  the 
Obion- A  BCD,  and  parallel,  respectively,  to  the  sides  A  B  and  B  C,  draw  the  double 
lines  L  M  N  O  P  (nialdng  the  number  of  double  lines  equal  to  the  number  of  jack-nbs 
required,)  'and  produce  them  so  as  to  intersect  the  diagonals  A  C,  B  D ;  ^-om  the  pomts 
of  intersection,  1  2,  1  2,  &c.  let  fall  perpendiculars  upon  the  sides  A  B,  B  L,  ol  the  ob- 
long, and  produce  these  perpendiculars  so  as  to  cross  <he  elevations^  at  Fig  s^l  and^.; 
through  the  points  where  they  meet  the  elevations,  draw  the  chords  L,  M,  i\,  U,  f  tie 
respective  arcs  subtended  by  these  chords,  show  the  length  and  curvature  of  the  jack-ribs 
required  for  the  arch,  and  when  the  jack-ribs  and  angle-ribs  are  placed  per,iend.cularly 
over  their  bases  in  the  plan,  they  will  intersect  each  other  in-  the  points  1  ^,  1  ^  ^^'— 
Fio-  3.  represents  an  angle-rib.  A  scale  of  inches  is  likewise  attached  to  the  plate.— 
The  student  will  observe,  that  that  part  of  the  perpendiculars  which  crosses  the  eleva- 
tions,  shews  the  cuts  for  the  jack-ribs,  the  dotted  line  being  the  cut  for  the  longest  side 
of  the  ribs. 

PL.  18. 
CIRCULAR  DOMES. 
As  the  common  method  of  finding  the  centres  for  describing  the  boards  to  cover  a  hori- 
zontal dome  will  be  found  in  practice  very  inconvenient,  for  those  boards  which  come 
near  to  the  bottom;  I  shall  in  this  place  show  how  to  remedy  that  inconvenience. 

TO  FIND  THE  SWEEP  OV  THE  BOARDS  ON  THE  TOP.       FIG.  A. 

Divide  the  round  circumference  of  the  dome  into  equal  parts  at  1,2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  &c. 
each  division  to  the  width  of  a  board,  making  proper  allowance  for  the  camber  of  each 
board;  draw  a  line  through  the  points  1,  2,  to  meet  the  axis  of  the  dome  at  .t;  on  x,  as  a 
centre,  with  the  radii  x  1  and  .v  9  describe  the  two  concentric  circles  it  will  form  the 
board  G;  in  the  same  manner  continue  a  line  through  the  points  2  and  3  at  C,  to  meet 
the  axis  in  w;  then  ic  is  the  centre  for  the  board  C;  proceed  in  the  same  manner  lor  the 

boards  D,  E,  and  F.  ■      ■,     r    .  ,      c  4. 

Now  suppose  F  to  be  the  last  board  that  you  can  conveniently  find  a  centre,  lor  want 
of  room;  on  t  its  centre,  and  the  radius  t  5,  make  from  t  on  the  axis  of  the  dome  t  a, 
equal  to  t  5;  through  the  points  5  and  a  draw  the  dotted  line  5  a  6,  to  cut  the  other  side 
of  the  circumference  of  the  dome  at  6;  from  the  points  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  draw  radical 
lines  to  b,  to  cut  the  axis  of  the  dome  at  i,  k,  /,  m,  n,  o;  also  through  the  points  5,  7,  8, 
9  10  11  draw  the  parallels  6  c,  7  d,  8  e,  &c.  then  will  each  of  these  parallel  lines  be 
half  the  length  of  a  chord  line  for  each  board ;  then  take  c  6  from  Fig.  A,  which  trans- 
fer to  No.  l]  from  c  to  G  and  6 ;  make  the  height  c  i,  at  No.  1,  equal  to  c  i,  at  Fig  A;  and 
draw  the  chords  i  6  and  i  6 ;  then  upon  either  point  6,  as  a  centre  with  any  radius,  de- 
scribe an  arch  of  a  circle  0  12;  divide  it  into  two  equal  parts  at  1,  and  through  the 
points  6  and  1  draw  6  q;  bisect  i  6,  in  p]  draw  jj  q  perpendicular;  then  i  6  is  the  length, 
and  p  r/the  height  of  the  board  G,  which  may  be  described  as  in  Fig.  4,  Plate  V,  oi  the 
Geometry.  The  reader  must  observe,  that  the  length  of  the  board  is  of  no  consequence 
so  as  the  true  sweep  is  got,  which  is  all  that  is  required.  Proceed  in  the  same  mannet 
with  No  2  by  taking  d  7  from  Fig.  A,  and  place  it  at  No.  2,  on  each  side  of  d  at  7  and  7 
and  take  (/  k,  from  Fig.  A,  and  make  d  k  at  No.  2,  equal  to  it;  draw  the  chords  kl  and 
k  7  and  bisect  A'  7  at  n;  draw  n  a  perpendicular;  upon  the  other  extremity  at  7,  as  a 
centre  describe  an  arch  0  12,  and  bisect  it  at  1,  and  through  the  points  7  and  1  draw 
the  line  7  a  to  cut  the  perpendicular  n  a  at  a  ;  but  if  the  distance  k  7  is  too  long  for  the 
lentrth  of  a  board,  bisect  the  arch  0  1  at  6;  through  7  and  b  draw  7  t,  and  draw  the  little 
cho'rd  a  7,  and  bisect  it  at  t ;  draw  t  u  perpendicular  to  intersect  7  4  at  u ;  and  with  the 
chord  7  a  and  the  height  t  u  describe  the  segment  H. 


7 


26  GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 

In  tlie  same  niaiiner  may  the  next  board  /be  found,  and  by  this  means  you  may  bring 
the  sweep  of  your  board  into  the  smallest  compass,  wilhoui  having  any  recourse  to  the 
centre. 

SUPPOSE  IT    WERE    REdUIRED    TO    DRAW    A  TANGENT    FROM    8  AT    NO.    3,  WITHOUT    HAVING    RE- 
COURSE TO  THE  CENTRE. 

Bisect  ihe  arch  8  /  8  at  /;  on  8  as  a  centre,  with  the  radius  8  I,  describe  an  arch  e  lt\ 
make  /  i equal  to  /  e;  draw  the  tangent  t  8. 

GIVEN  THREE  POINTS    IN    THE    CIRCUMFERENCE    OF   A   CIRCLE,  TO    FIND  ANY    NUMBER    OF    EQUI- 
DISTANT POINTS  BEYOND  THOSE  THAT  WILL  BE  IN  THE  SAME  CIRCUMFERENCE. 

Fig  K.  Suppose  the  three  points  a,  6,  c,  to  be  given  :  to  one  of  the  extreme  point?  a 
join  the  other  two  points  b  and  c  by  the  lines  a  h  and  a  c;  with  the  radius  a  b,  and  the 
centre  a,  describe  the  arch  of  a  circle  6  12  3;  then  take  b  1,  and  set  it  from  I  to  2,  and 
from  2  to  3;  through  the  points  2  and  3,  draw  a  d  and  a  c;  then  take  b  c,  put  the  foot 
of  your  compass  in  c,  and  with  the  other  foot  cross  the  line  a  d  at  d;  with  the  same  ex- 
tent put  the  foot  of  your  compass  in  d,  and  with  the  other  foot  cross  the  line  a  e  at  e ;  in 
the  same  manner  you  may  proceed  for  any  number  of  points  whatever. 

PL.   19. 

Fig's.  1  and  2,  Elevation  and  plan  of  a  niche,  standing  in  a  wall,  with  its  ribs,  for  prac- 
tice, which  are  obtained  thus;  draw  the  given  rib  A,  a  quadrant  of  a  true  circle, 
which  is  equal  to  the  height  of  the  niche  in  the  curve  at  6,  8,  in  Fig.  1,  and  equal  to  the 
depth  G,  7,  on  the  plan  Fig.  2.  B  and  C,  jack  ribs,  which  are  both  the  quadrant  of  an 
ellipsis,  and  have  for  their  plans  B  C  in  Fig.  2;  the  two  latter  are  described  with  a 
tranunel,  as  represented  in  U.  The  bevel  1,  2,  and  4,  5,  in  B  and  C,  is  the  same  as  1,2, 
and  4,  5,  in  B  C,  Fig  2. 

Note. — The  two  last  ribs  will  serve  as  patterns  for  the  two  on  the  opposite  side,  and 
save  the  expense  of  making  expressly  for  that  purpose.  For  taking  distances,  and  mov- 
ing the  trammel,  refer  to  Fig.  5,  Plate  XXI.  This,  however,  is  guided  by  pins  moving 
in  grooves,  which  is  represented  by  the  large  lines  in  the  cross  at  the  rib  C. 

HIP-ROOFING,  FIG.  3. 

To  obtain  the  height,  length,  and  backing  of  the  hip-rafter  H,  abfe  being  a  plan  of 
the  right  angled  ends,  let  e  c /be  the  seat  of  the  common  principal  rafters,  c  d  the  height 
of  the  roof,  and  e  d  and  df  will  be  the  length  of  the  common  rafters  ;  raise  g  c  equal  to 
C  d,  the  given  height,  perpendicular  from  a  c,  the  seat  of  the  hip-rafter,  draw  o  if,  and 
the  line  a  H  g  will  be  the  length  of  the  hip-rafter.  To  obtain  the  backing,  draw  .r  z  y 
at  right  angles  to  a  c,  the  seat  of  the  hip,  place  one  point  of  the  compass  on  ~  and  des- 
cribe a  circle  to  touch  the  rafter,  draw  ?r  x  y  to  intersect  the  circle  and  seat  a  c  at  re,  and 
x  w  y  will  be  the  plans  or  backing  of  the  rafter,  D  will  be  the  shape,  and  one  end  of  the 
rafter  required. 

TO  GET  THE  CUTS  OF  THE    PURLIN  TO  THE    HIP-RAFTER,  AND  LIKEWISE    THE    JACK-RAFTERS   TO 

THE  HIP-RAFTERS. 

Place  the  purlin  I,  at  any  place  in  the  principal  rafter,  and  at  right-angles  to  it,  take 
any  distance  in  the  points  of  the  compass,  and  from  the  point  h  describe  the  circle  p  ,s  rq, 
drop  h  s  square  from  the  rafter  at  the  upper  side  of  the  plate,  drop  j)  n,  s  in,  h  i,  rk,  and  7  /, 
parallel  to  the  wall-plate/ 6,  draw  A:  b  at  right  angles*  to  r  k,  and  (j  I,  draw  i  I,  and  F  will 

*  It  will  onlv  answer  at  right  angles  when  the  olan  is  square,  which  is  proved  at  the  upper  end  of  the  plan,  which 
are  made  parallel  to  the  wall-plates. 


GEOMETRY    ADAPTED   TO    PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY.  27 

be  the  side  bevel  cut  that  part  /;  3  and  I  2  of  tlie  purlin  to  fit  to  the  rafter;  draw  m  n  to 
intersect  the  s<uit  at  in,  draw  /(  <,  and  the  angle  round  (J  will  be  the  down  bevel  to  cut 
the  sides  h  i  and  2  3  of  the  purlin ;  and  when  thus  applied  to  the  end  of  the  purlin,  and 
cut  accordinij;ly,  it  will  make  a  perfect  joini  to  the  hip-ralter;  turn  a  at  the  end  of  F  down 
to  the  dotted  line  z,  and  z  i  I  will  be  the  side  bevel  lor  the  jack-ralter  to  the  hip.  The 
bevel  A  will  be  the  down  bevel  for  the  same  or  jack-rafters. 

All  that  is  necessary  to  say  in  relation  to  tlie  opposite  end  of  this  plan  is,  that  it  is  of  a 
parallelogram  form,  and  terminated  at  its  extixjmities  by  two  obtuse,  and  two  acute  angles, 
which  consequently  require  the  lines  g  I,  r  k,  h  i,  s  m,  p  n,  I  k,  and  n  m,  parallel  to  the 
side  walls  hj]  and  b  j  a,  in  place  of  at  right  angles  as  in  the  square  end.  The  irregular 
end  has  the  same  letters,  and  is  performed  by  the  same  process,  but  will  require  it  on 
both  rafters,  and  on  both  sides  of  them. 

TO    DESCRIBE  A    SEGMENT  OF  A  CIRCLE,  FIG.    4.    AT  TWICE    UPON  TROE.  PRINCIPLES    BY  A   FLAT 

TRIANGLE. 

l<et  the  extent  of  the  segment  be  a  6,  and  its  height  c  d;  let  a  d  of  the  triangle  be  a 
hypothenuse  line  to  one  half  the  segment,  n  e  a  parallel  line  to  c  b ;  place  a  pin  at  ad  for 
the  triangle  to  slide  against,  place  a  lead  pencil  at  d,  then  move  the  triangle  from  d  down 
to  a,  and  one  half  the  segment-will  be  described;  and  the  same  process  on  the  other  half 
will  complete  the  segment. 

TO    DESCRIBE    A    SEGMENT    WITH    THREE    STRIPS    TO   ANY    LENGTH    ATMD    HEIGHT. 

Make  two  rods  e  d,  and  d  f,  to  form  an  angle  e  df,  so  that  each  may  be  equal  to  ad  and 
d  b;  let  c  d  be  the  height^place  pins  at  a  6,  the  extremities — place  a  pencil  at  d,  then 
move  d  round  each  way  from  a  to  5,  and  the  segment  will  be  complete.  A  segment  of  this 
description  may  be  drawn  to  a  great  extent  with  rods,  by  describing  itattwice,  as  in  Fig.  4 

TO  DESCRIBE  AN  OCTAGON,  AND  RAISE  AN  ELEVATION  FROM  IT,  AS  FIg's.  7  AND  8. 

Draw  a  geometrical  square,  as  a.ta  b  c  d ;  place  one  point  of  the  compass  on  a,  extend 
the  other  point  to  the  centre  c — let  a,  stand,  and  describe  a  quadrant  of  a  circle  ;  proceed 
thus  at  each  corner,  and  the  plan  of  the  octagon  will  be  atffff,  &c.  This  method  of 
raising  the  elevation  will  be  understood  by  only  noticing  that  the  dotted  lines  are  raised 
from  the  windows  g  g  g,  and  angles  ff/f,  to  the  same  in  Fig.  6. 

FIG.    8,  TO  FIND    THE    CENTRE    OF    A    CIRCLE,    WHOSE    CENTRE    HAS    BEEN    LOST. 

Let  a  6  be  the  curve;  take  any  distance,  c  d,  and  at  any  place  on  the  curve  a  b,  in  the 
compass,  and  describe  the  circles  cd  e,  cd  e,  and  their  intersections// will  be  direct  to 
to  the  centre,  and  at  the  intersection  of  the  two  radiating  lines  at  g,  will  be  the  centre  re- 
quired; and  may  be  proved  by  setting  one  point  of  the  compass  in  ^5  and  sweeping  it 
round  from  a  to  b. 

FIG.   9,    TO    FIND    THE    MITRE"  OF    A    MOULDING    IN   AN   OBTUSE   AND    ACUTE    ANGLE. 

Let  the  plan  or  shape  of  the  pannel  hea  b  c  d,  draw  the  inner  line  of  the  moulding, 
which  is  of  the  same  width  all  round;  draw  df  to  cross  at  the  out  and  inside  angles  of 
the  moulding,  and  df  will  be  the  obtuse  mitre;  and  the  same  process  at  a  e  will  make 
the  acute  mitre.    The  two  bevels  will  be  the  cut  for  the  templets  or  mouldings. 

PL.  20. 

Note.- — As  the  term  envelope  is  not  generally  used  by  practical  mechanics,  it  will  be 


28  GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 

omitted  in  the  explanation  of  these  problems,  and  use  the  term  stretchout  of  the  soffit,  as 
is  now  more  generally  in  use. 

PROBLEM    1,    FIG.    1. 

Xet  A  B  C  D  be  tTie  plan  of  a  wall  in  which  a  window  or  door  is  to  be  executed,  and 
F  the  given  circle  of  the  window  or  door  head,  and  L  the  circle  of  the  head,  (which  is  a  semi- 
ellipsis,  reversed  to  that  of  Fig's.  2  and  3,)  on  the  convex  side  of  the  plane  of  the  wall  ; 
then,  in  order  to  obtain  the  stretchout  of  the  soffit  J,  to  bend  under  F  and  L,  draw  the  line 
A  B  and  D  C,  parallel  to  the  splay  of  ihe  jams,  (which  is  A  B  and  D  C,)  until  they  in- 
tersect at  G;  then  divide  the  given  circle  F,  from  A  to  D,  into  eight  equal  j)arts,  or  any 
other  even  numbers,  and  drop  them  perpendicular  to  the  chord  line  A  D,  of  the  plan  E, 
and  from  thence  extend  them  until  they  all  intersect  at  G  ;  then  to  produce  the  circle  L, 
to  correspond  with  the  given  circle  F,  draw  the  cord  line  L,a,  tangent  to  the  convex  line 
B  C,  of  the  plan  E,  then  take  the  heights  1  1,  2  2,  33,  4  4,  &c.  in  F,  the  given  circle 
of  the  window  or  door,  and  transfer  them  to  the  circle  L,  which  will  produce  it  when 
traced  at  those  points.  To  produce  the  soffit  to  bend  under  the  two  circles  P  and  L, 
precisely  to  cover  the  plan  E,  from  A  B  to  C  D,  (which  is  the  base  of  the  arch,)  place 
one  point  of  the  compass  on  the  letter  G,  and  extend  the  other  out  to  A;  let  G  stand, 
and  turn  the  point  A  round  to  D,  across  K ;  then  take  the  distance  12  3  4,  &c.  to  8,  on 
the  curve  of  F,  and  transfer  them  to  the  curve  line  A  D,  across  K,  which  will  be  the 
stretchout  of  the  given  circle;  then  take  the  distances  1  1  1  —  2  2  2 — 3  3  3 — 4  4  4,  «S:c. 
across  H  and  E,  and  transfer  them  to  the  same  letters  across  I  J;  and  then  by  turning 
round  in  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  and  8,  and  from  A  to  D,  and  from  B  to  C,  in  J;  the  soffit  J  will  be 
described  as  required,  to  make  a  perfect  one  to  bend  under  F  and  L,  and  form  under 
them  two  lines  that  will  correspond  with  the  two  lines  A  D  and  B  C,  in  the  plan  E. 

Note. — This  mould  as  it  lays  on  the  plate  between  the  two  lines  that  run  from  A  to 
D  and  B  to  C,  will  answer  for  a  pattern  to  cut  the  arch  stone  by,  or  for  a  veneering  to 
the  same  surface ;  and  may  be  obtained  by  another  process,  which  i.e  as  follows : 

Draw  lines  from  12  3  4,  on  the  curve  line  A  D,  of  the  plan  E,  parallel  to  the  chord 
line  A  D,  of  the  plan,  to  intersect  the  splay  of  the  jamb,  which  is  the  line  A  B  G;  tiicn 
place  one  point  of  the  compass  on  G,  and  extend  the  other  point  to  1,  on  the  line  A  B 
G;  let  G  stand  and  turn  1  round  to  1,  on  tlie  line  A  D,  in  which  it  will  be  observed  to 
intersect  the  line  A  B,  on  1  1  1  G.  This  one  transfer  explained  is  sufficient;  lor  2  3  4 
is  precisely  the  same  in  effect. 

This  last  method  is  not  as  simple  as  the  former;  therefore  it  is  not  as  expedient  for 
practical  use. 

PROBLEM  2,  FIG.  2. 

Is  also  a  circular  head  and  a  circular  ba,se,  with  its  given  curv^e  on  the  convex  side  of  the 
plan,  and  requiring  a  soffit,  as  in  the  above  problem,  which  is  described  as  follows: — 

First  determine  the  splay  of  the  jambs  A  B  G  and  D  C  G;  then  draw  the  chord  line 
gh  of  the  given  circle  M,  a  tangent  to  the  convex  lineB  C,  of  the  plan  E,  and  transfer 
the  distances  I  1,  2  2,  3  3,  4  4,&c.  in  M,  to  the  same  figures  in  E,  the  curve  of  the  con- 
cave side  of  the  arch ;  then  trace  round  by  1  2  3  4,  &.c.  to  8,  and  F  will  be  semi-ellipsis  ; 
then  to  describe  the  width,  length,  and  curve  of  the  soffit  J,  take  the  distances  12  3  4, 
which  is  one  half  of  the  span  of  the  given  circle  M,  and  place  it  between  G  and  H,  per- 
pendicular to  G  B  A,  with  their  parts  divided  the  same  as  they  are  on  the  chord  line  of 
M;  then  to  determine  the  one  half  of  the  soffit  J,  which  is  the  centre  line  4  4,  H  1,  through 
K,  take  a  compass  and  place  one  point  on  G,  extend  the  other  point  1,  on  the  concave 
line  A  D,  of  the  plan  E ;  then  take  up  the  compass  with  G  1  between  its  points,  and  place 


GEOMETRY  ADAPTKD  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY.  29 

the  point  G  on  3,  in  the  line  G  H  ;  then  take  the  distanrc  A  I ,  on  the  circumference  of  the 
ellipsis  F,  and  lei  the  point  in  A  stand  and  turn  I  round  until  it  will  meet  the  point  1  of 
the  compass  tliat  is  extended  from  3  in  the  line  G  II,  as  above  described;  then  the  distance 
A  I,  on  the  line  A  D,  of  the  sotfit  J,  will  be  that  part  of  tiie  stretchout  F,  which  is  the 
head  of  the  arch,  and  likewise  determine  theline  1,1,1,  3,  from  the  line  A  D,  of  the  sof- 
fit, to  the  line  6  4.  Then  to  obtain  the  point  2,  on  the  line  A  D,  of  the  sollit,  take  the 
distance  G  2,  on  the  line  A  D,  of  the  plan  E,  and  transfer  it  to  the  line  2,  that  extends 
from  the  line  G  11,  to  the  line  A  D,  of  the  solKt;  minding  particularly  to  have  the  dis- 
tance 1  2,  of  the  soffit,  the  same  distance  of  1  2,  in  the  curve  line  of  F,  which  will  be 
the  stretchout  of  that  much  of  F,  as  above  noticed  at  A  1  ;  and  by  proceedino;  thus  to 
the  centre  line  4  4,  H  I,  one  half  of  the  line  A  D,  the  stretchout  of  the  soffit  w  ill  be  ob- 
tained; and  for  the  other  half,  take  the  lines  and  distances  of  the  half  already  obtained, 
and  ti'ansfer  them  to  the  lines  5  5  5  1,  &c.  But  before  the  transfer  can  be  made,  the 
line  H  12  3  4,  out  to  N  must  be  determined,  which  is  done  thus:  Take  a  compass  and 
place  one  point  on  H  between  1  1 ,  and  extend  the  other  point  to  G  ;  let  H  stand,  and  turn 
G  round  to  N,  which  will  form  the  circle  GIN;  then  take  the  compass  and  place  the 
two  points  on  G  and  I,  and  let  I  stand,  and  move  round  until  it  meets  the  circle  G  I  N,  at 
N,  and  N  will  be  the  point  required  for  the  line  H  N,  which  is  the  same  distance  of  H 
G.  The  distances  1  1,  2  2,  and  3  3,  are  transfered  by  turning  3  over  to  3,  &c.  As  the 
explanations  thus  far  only  show  the  stretchout  AD,  of  the  soffit,  the  width  is  yet  required, 
■which  is  obtained  thus; 

Take  the  distances  111,  across  the  plan  E,  and  transfer  them  to  the  same  figures  in 
the  soffit  J,  and  so  on  with  2  2  2,  3  3  3,  &c.  from  E  to  J,  and  the  soffit  required  to  bend 
under  the  arch  directly  over  and  parallel  lo  the  plan  E,  will  be  produced  at  J.  It  will  be 
observed,  that  if  a  window  should  be  executed  in  a  wall  that  hasone  of  i  he  sides  straight 
and  the  other  circular,  as  at  A  D,  and  g  h,  in  E,  the  same  lines  A  D,  and  g  /i,  in  J,  wdl 
cover  or  envelope  the  same.  But  if  the  walls  are  both  curved,  as  in  A  D,  and  B  C,  in  E, 
the  plan,  the  same  letters  in  J  will  serve  them. 

PROBLEM  3,  FIG.  3, 

Is  a  circular  head  with  splayed  jambs  standing  in  a  straig'ht  wall,  and  has  the  same  fig- 
ures, letiers,  and  explanations  as  that  of  Fig.  2 ;  therefore  the  student  will  refer  to  Fig. 
2  for  its  explanations. 

AN  ELLIPTICAL  DOME,  WITH   ITS  TIMBERS  AND  COVERIXG. 

Fig.  1,  Is  the  plan  of  an  elliptical  dome,  which  has  for  its  given  height  at  the  transverse 
line  B  F,  a  semicircle,  and  for  its  larger  span  D  F,  at  right  angles  to  F  B,  a  semi-ellipsis, 
the  heigiit  of  which  is  obtained  thus:  draw  Fig.  7,  the  given  circle  rafter  or  rib  of  the 
dome  at  F,  in  Fig.  7,  directly  over  the  wall-plate  F,  in  the  plan  l''ig.4  to  join  on  the  plate 
T  of  the  sky  li^ht,  which  causi-s  the  dome  to  I'all  a  trifle  under  s,  (T  is  an  elevation  of 
the  plate  C  on  the  plan  Fig.  4,)  draw  the  line  from  t  in  the  curb  Plate  T  out  to  r  parallel 
to  the  base  ui'  Fig.  7,  then  piace  the  points  of  the  compass  on  g  aud  r.  let  ^  stand,  turn 
J-  round  to  ti,  and  ii  g  will  be  the  height  of  the  elliptical  ribs  in  Fig.  5,  next  determine 
the  location  of  the  purlin  at  C  in  F,  Fig.  7,  and  transfer  it  to  Fig.  5  in  the  same  manner 
as  at  g  r  u,  and  tiie  l!>catioii  will  be  determined  at  G  in  Fi":.  5.  To  deter. nine  the  solid 
an<l  shape  of  the  purlin  plate  A,  in  Fig.  4,  as  at  C  C  in  Fig's.  5  and  7,  draw  o  o  through 
the  centre  of  the  plate  A  in  Fig.  7,  through  C,  then  draw  a  line  from  o  on  the  outer  side 
of  the  rib  and  in  the  midille  of  the  plate,  to  intersect  it  at  the  under  side  of  the  rib  and 
plate;  fur  the  upper  side,  draw  from  n,  the  middle  of  tiie  plate,  at  the  under  side  of  the 
rib  to  intersect  its  uppermost  side  at ':i,  and  the  solid  sliape  will  bt;  conlained  bel  ween 
the  letters  o  2  and  o  2  ;  and  to  produce  the  shape  at  the  elliptical  rib  in  Fis;.  5,  transfer 

8 


30  GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 

the  letters  2  o  2,  round  the  same  letters  at  C,  in  Fig.  5,  and  where  they  intersect  the  up- 
per and  lower  sides  of  the  rib,  will  be  the  corners,  form  and  solid  of  C,  at  tliat  place. 

Here  it  will  be  seen  it  is  not  in  square  angles,  as  at  C,  in  Fig.  7,  which  is  caused  by  the 
ribs  being  of  diiferent  circles.  Mext  as  to  work  the  plate  into  its  proper  shape  as  at  C 
C,  in  Figs  5  and  7;  drop  lines  from  ii  c  in  Fig.  7,  down  to  h  c  at  X  in  A,  the  j)hite  at  Fi"-. 
4,  wiiich  determines  the  plate  A  at  X,  then  take  the  distance  ^  2  at  C,  Fi"-.  4  and  trans- 
fer it  to  6  1  at  X  in  A,  at  Fig.  4,  wliich  will  determine  the  upper  outside  angle  at  X 
when  worked — and  for  the  under  angle,  take  the  distance  a  2  at  C  and  apply  it  to  h  2  at 
X,  for  tlie  two  middle  angles  o  o,  set  a  guage  to  the  middle  of  the  plate,  when  in  form  of 
abed;  To  obtain  the  angles  at  D  in  the  Plate  A,  Fig.  4,  noticing  that  the  plate  is 
wider  at  D  than  at  X,  (which  is  produced  by  the  plan  being  of  an  elliptical  figure,  drop 
lines  from  b  c  at  C,  Fig.  5,  to  D,  which  will  determine  the  width  of  the  plate  at  D ;  and 
for  the  upper  angle  on  the  plate,  take  the  distance  b  2  at  C,  and  transfer  it  down  to  6  2 
at  D,  which  will  produce  the  upper  angle ;  and  for  the  lower  angle,  take  the  distance  a  2 
at  C,  and  transfer  it  to  2  o  at  D,  in  Fig.  4,  the  upper  and  lower  angles  will  be  at  2,  and 
a  at  D,  Fig.  4.  As  the  angles  of  an  elliptical  plate  cannot  be  described  by  a  guao-e, 
as  one  could  of  a  true  circle,  it  will  be  understood  that  they  must  be  struck  A\itli  a 
trammel. 

Note. — The  plate  A,  in  Fig.  4,  in  the  first  operation,  is  worked  out  square,  as  a  b  c  d 
at  C  C  in  Fig's.  5  and  7,  and  then  if  worked  off  as  above  described,  will  form  the  solid 
and  angles  precisely  as  o  2,  o  2.     EG  in  Fig.  4,  is  a  seat  of  an  intiermediate  rib. 

It  may  be  useful  to  observe,  that  this  method  will  work  the  bar  of  a  sash,  if  required, 
in  a  sky-light. 

TO  OBTAIN  THE  COVERING  FOR  ONE  FOURTH  PART,  WHICH  WILL  SERVE  THE  OTHER  THREE  PARTS. 

First :  Draw  the  given  rib  at  Fig.  8,  which  is  described  at  the  letters  A  B  6 ;  divide  the 
curve  of  the  rib  from  B  to  6  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  say  six ;  and  drop  ordinate 
lines  from  thence  perpendicular  to  the  base  line  A  B ;  take  tlie  base  line  A  B,  and  trans- 
fer it  to  the  seat  line  B  1  2  3  4  5  6  A,  in  Fig  4;  then  draw  the  line  B  C,  the  base  of 
Fig.  9,  perpendicular  to  the  seat  A  B,  and  transfer  1  2  3  4  5,  to  the  seats  C  A,  E  A,  and 
F  A,  parallel  to  B  B,  CD  E,  and  E  F,  which  will  determine  the  seats  of  all  the  same 
figures  in  Fig's  9,  10,  and  11,  when  bent  over  the  domes  in  their  practical  forms,  and  are 
obtained  thus : 

Take  the  distances  1  2  3  4  5  6,  on  the  curve  line  B  6,  of  Fig.  8;  and  transfer  them  to  the 
same  letters  in  the  perpendicular  line  of  Fig.  9;  then  draw  the  lines  1  2  3  4  5,  in  Fig.  9, 
parallel  to  the  base  line  B  C;  then  raise  lines  from  12  3  4  5,  on  the  seat  line  C  A,  in 
Fig.  4,  to  intersect  12  3  4  5,  on  the  curve  line  C  6,  in  Fig.  9  ;  then  Fig.  9  will  be  tlie 
covering  for  that  part  on  the  plan  Fig.  4,  between  the  letters  ABC,  and  also  the  stretch- 
out of  the  same.  No  further  explanation  will  be  required  for  Fig's.  10  and  11,  as  they 
have  the  same  figures,  and  are  produced  by  the  same  process  as  that  of  Fig.  9,  except  to 
describe  the  ribs  which  are  at  Fig.  8,  and  are  as  follows : 

The  curve  C  6,  next  to  B  6,  in  Fig.  8,  is  the  seat  of  an  intermediate  rib,  over  C  A, 
the  plan  in  Fig.  4 ;  and  the  line  C  6,  of  Fig.  10,  is  the  stretchout  of  the  same ;  D  6,  in 
Fig.  8,  is  the  intermediate  rib  E,  in  Fig.  5;  of  which  D  A  and  C  E,  in  Fig.  4,  is  the  seat. 
E  6,  in  Fig.  8,  is  the  rib  that  passes  over  E  A,  in  the  plan  Fig.  4,  of  which  the  lines  E 
6,  in  Fig's.  10  and  11  are  the  stretchout,  and  will  bend  and  joint  over  the  same  in  prac- 
tice.    F  6,  in  Fig.  8,  is  the  rib  D,  in  Fig's.  5  and  7  :  and  F  A,  or  A  D  DD  is  the  seat  of  it. 

PL.  21. 

DRAWINGS  FOR  RAKING  MOULDS RULES  FOR  CUTTING  THEIR  JOINTS,  AND  COVERINGS  FOR  DOMES. 

This  plate  exhibits  a  drawing  for  a  raking  moulding,  to  mitre  with  a  horizontal  mould- 


GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY.  '^1 

ing,  (for  instance,  the  cyinriathiuni  or  crown  moulding  of  an  eave  cornice ;  and  likewise 
one  of  the  same  nature  to  mitre  round  a  modillion,  mutule,  or  anything  of  the  like  na- 
ture suspended  to  the  inclined  cornice  of  a  pediment,  or  any  square  body  like  a  pedestal, 
where  it  may  be  necessary  to  mitre  a  moulding  round  it  in  an  oblique  direction;  a  rule 
for  making  a  templet,  or  mitrc-box,  for  cutting  tlie  diflfcrent  joints  to  inclined  mouldings, 
and  likewise  a  method  of  obtaining  the  ribs  and  coverings  to  oblong,  square,  and  oblong 
polygonal  domes. 

Tlie  above  method  of  cutting  the  mitres  of  a  moulding  round  a  modillion  or  mutule, 
(although  I  believe  it  has  not  heretofore  been  explained,)  is  a  subject  of  importance  to 
every  executor  ;  for  in  all  pediments,  even  where  the  modillion  is  omitted,  the  same  rule 
is  required  lo  cut  the  mitre  of  the  inclined  moulding  at  the  lower  end,  which  joins  to  the 
horizontal  one,  that  is  required  on  the  lower  side  of  a  modillion.  I  have  considered  it 
a  problem  of  the  utmost  use,  and  consequently  have  made  it  a  part  of  this  plate,  as  will 
be  seen  in  the  following  references  and  explanations. 

REFERENCES  TO  THE    FIGURES. 

Fig.  1,  a  raking  or  inclined  moulding,  mitring  to  a  bevel  one. 

Fig.  2,  a  moulding  mitred  round  a  modillion,  mutule,  or  any  square  body,  in  an  oblique 
direction. 

Fig.  3,  a  templet  or    mitre-box,  to  show  and  cut  tlie  mitres  of  Fig.  2. 

Fig.  4,  a  section  of  Fig.  3,  with  the  moulding  applied  in  order  to  cut  the  mitre. 

Fig.  5,  a  section  or  end  of  Fig.  6,  with  the  mouldings  A  C,  in  Fig.  2,  applied  for  sawing. 

Fig.  6,  a  templet  or  mitre-box,  stretched  out  at  A  C,  in  Fig's.  5  and  2. 

Fig.  7,  an  oblong  polygonal  dome,  with  its  covering  attached  to  it. 

Fig.  8,  the  ribs  for  Fig.  7,  as  will  be  explained  hereafter. 

Fig.  9,  an  oblong  square  dome,  with  its  ribs  and  coverings. 

To  draw  a  raking  moulding  to  mitre  with  a  level  one,  as  in  Fig.  1,  draw  the  horizon- 
tal mould  1  5  6  3  2,  as  at  A;  then  draw  the  horizontal  ordinate  lines  1,  10  10,  9  9,  8  8,  7  7, 
5,  4,  6,  and  2,  3,  which  will  represent  all  the  extreme  points  necessary  for  transferring 
and  drawing  B  C  ;  then  draw  the  lines  1  10  9  8  7  4  6  3,  according  to  the  rake  or  inclina- 
tion of  the  pediment,  up  through  the  moulds  B  C;  then  take  a  divider  and  apply  the  two 
points  to  10  10,  in  A,  and  transfer  it  to  the  figures  in  B  and  C,  and  so  on  until  2  3,  in  A 
is  transferred  up  to  B  C,  which  will  give  all  the  same  points  according  to  their  respective 
situations  that  there  are  in  A,  the  horizontal  and  given  mould ;  hence  it  will  readily  be 
seen  that  B  is  the  size  and  shape  of  the  raking  mould  required  to  mitre  on  to  A,  tlie  given 
mould;  G  shows  the  shape  of  B  at  the  joint  of  the  two  inclined  mouldings,  which  is  not 
important  in  practical  drawings'. 

In  the  ovale  which  is  crowned  by  a  projecting  square,  there  will  be  a  quirk  produced 
by  the  relief  of  the  ovalo  under  the  square,  which  will  be  seen  at  4  6,  in  A,  and  is  also 
horizontal ;  but  in  B,  the  raking  mould,  it  will  be  seen  at  4  6  to  be  beveled,  and  is  evi- 
dently necessary  to  be  so,  .to  mitre  with  4  6  in  A,  tlie  given  mould. 

Note. — The  same  mitre  that  is  explained  in  Fig.  3  to  cut  C  in  Fig.  2,  will  also  crut  A 
in  Fig.  1. 

TO    DRAW    FIG.  2. 

Let  B  be  the  given  moulding  that  passes  up  the  pediment,  and  C  A,  those  that  return 
from  the  front  to  the  rear  of  tlie  modillion,  and  mitres-  with  the  one  that  passes  in  the 
front  and  tlie  rear  piece  that  extends  from  one  modillion  to  the  other,  which  are  both  the 
same.  B  being  the  given  moulding,  it  will  be  only  necessary  to  say  that  the  distances 
e  e,  e  e,  e  e,  &c.  in  B,  are  transfered  to  the  same  letters  in  C  A,  in  the  same  manner  the 
distances- 10,  10,  &c.  are  to  B  C,  in  Fig-  1  ;  and  that  the  line  6  «,  in  B,  is  drawn  perpen- 


32  GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPE\TRY. 

dicular  or  square  to  the  raUe  line//,  wliicli  is  according  to  the  pediment;  and  that  the 
line  ba,  in  A,  and  c  d,  in  C,  are  drawn  perpendicular  to  a  horizontal  line. 

TO  WORK  THE  MOULD  C,  TO  FIT  THE  ANGLE  PRODUCED  WITH  THE  MODTLLION  AND  UNDER  SIDE 
OF  THE  COUONA  OR  FACIA  BETWEEN  THE  MODILLION  AND  CYMATIUM  OF  CROWN  MOULDING 
OF  THE  PEDIMENT, 

First:  It  will  be  observed  that  tlie  angle  is  an  acute  one,  as  at  fi;  consequently  the 
piece  out  of  which  the  moulding  C  is  to  be  worked,  will  be  conlained  between  the  letters 
d  cja;  and  after  the  piece  is  thus  worked,  the  executor  will  work  his  moulding  precisely 
according  to  the  curve  of  6  c  t  c  e  e  a,  and  C  will  be  precisely  the  moulding  required  to 
mitre  with  the  given  moulding  B. 

TO  WORK  THE  UPPER  MOULDING  A,  TO  MITRE  WITH  B,  THE  GIVEN  MOULDING. 

In  this  it  will  be  observed  that  the  angle  a,  is  an  obtuse  angle,  directly  reverse  to  that 
of  (/  in  C,  but  is  obtained  by  the  same  process  ;  and  the  next  thing  that  necessarily  follows 
in  practice,  is  the  cutting  of  the  joints,  which  is  as  it  follows  after  the  references  to  the 
letters  A  B  C,  in  Fig.  3. 

REFERENCES  TO  A  B  C,  IN  FIG.  3,  A  TEMPLET  OR  MITRE-BOX. 

A,  Is  the  bottom  of  the  templet,  the  same  as  A  in  the  section  at  Fig.  4. 

B,  Is  the  side  of  the  templet  turned  down. 

C,  Is  the  upper  edge  of  the  side  B,  when  turned  up  in  the  form  of  Fig  .4,  the  same 
asC. 

TO  OBTAIN  THE  CUT  OF  THE  MITRK  OF  THE  LOWER  AND  UPPER  END  OF  THE  GIVEN  MOULDING  B. 

First :  Lay  down  the  projeclion  of  B,  the  given  mould  in  Fig.  2,  on  the  bottom  of  the 
templet  at  A,  in  Fig.  3,  whicii  i^g  k,  and  /i  k,  then  take  the  distances,  cf,  and  b  f,  at 
the  upper  and  lower  end  of  B,in  Fig.  2,  and  apply  fheiii  to  g  I  and  h  I,  on  the  line 
between  A  B,  in  Fig.  3,  which  is  their  projections  in  their  inclined  positions  then  e.xtcnd 
the  dotted  lines  I  i  and  y  /,  out  to  the  dotted  lines  i  k  and  k  v,whic])  is  the  projection 
of  the  given  mould  B,  Fig.  2,  as  will  readily  be  seen  already  applied  at  B,  in  the  templet 
Fig.  4  ;  then  draw  the  lines  g  i  and  li  i,  which  will  be  the  mitre  of  their  respective  incli- 
nations, agreeable  to  the  pediment. 

As  this  is  not  a  square  mitre  or  angle  of  forty-five  degrees  as  it  lays  on  this  plate 
horizonlally,  it  is  evident  that  the  plum-cut  will  nol  be  so  (o  iheboKom  A,  of  llic  temp- 
let, as  willbe  seen  at  the  cuts  0  k  and  r  k,  on  the  side  B  of  the  tem|)lct,  whicli  may  be 
obtained  as  follows: 

First:  It  nuist  be  understood  thai  (he  cuts  h  g  and  r //,  in  B,  Fig.  3,  are  the  same  as 
bg  and  c  h,  in  I-'ig.  2;  and  also  that  they  are  the  same  distances,  Avhich  will  consequent- 
ly show,  that  wlien  the  tenqilet  Fig.  3"  is  in  a  pandlel  line  will)//  in  Fig.  2,  that  the 
cuts  b  g  and  c  Ji.,  in  Fig.  3,  will  idso  be  parall(>l  to  'he  same  letters  and  sides  afthe  mod- 
illions  in  Fig.  2.;  hence  it  will  be  inHler>tiK)d  that  ilB,  in  I-'ig.  3,  is  turned  up  edgeways, 
(speaking  after  the  manner  o.(  mechanics.)  it  will  Ibrni  a  tenq)lel,  of  which  I-'ig.  4  will 
be  a  section  or  eml;  showing  at  4he  sime  time  the  given  moulding  B,  in  I'ig.  2,  ap|)lied 
to  the  templet  in  its  proper  form  for  sawing  its  joints.  When  tlie  side  B,  is  turned  up 
as  above  described,  it  will  (()rm  on  its  top  the  letter  C,  Avhich  is  the  same  as  C,  in  the 
section  l-'ig.  4;  then  the  line./'/-  ''i  t],  will  be  parallel  \o  g  i,  in  A,  the  bottom;  a  a,  will 
also  be  parallel  to //,  i,  in  y\,  the  bottom;  tlierelfue  it  will  be  understood  that  if  the  given 
mouliling  B,  in  Fig.  2,  is  applied  in  the  templet,  as  at  B.  in  Fig.  4.  and  cut  or  sawed  ac- 
rordinii'  to  the  lines  if  i  an. I  >>  i,  in  Fig,  3,  it  will  b^^  'm  a  proper  shape  for  jointing  to  the 


GEOMETRY  ADAPTED  TO  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY.  33 

moulds  C  and  A,  in  Fig.  2,  which  are  cut  as  described  in  the  templet  Fig.  6.  It  will 
likewise  be  understood  that  the  same  templet  or  mitre-box  will  cut  the  moulding  be- 
tween the  modillions ;  for  it  is  precisely  the  same  in  its  cuts. 

TO  DRAW  AND  CUT  THE  MITRED  IN  FIG.  6. 

First :  Draw  the  section  or  end  of  the  templet  Fig.  5,  -which  is  drawn  precisely  the 
shape  of  the  modillion  Fig.  2  in  its  elevation,  and  also  right  under  it,  in  order  to  make  it 
easily  understood,  together  Vvnth  the  mouldings  C  and  A,  in  Fig.  2,  mechanically  applied 
for  cutting  or  sawing,  which  is  transferred  to  the  bottom  A,  in  Fig.  6,  by  placing  one  point 
of  the  compass  in  6,  and  extending  the  other  point  to  a,  on  the  dotted  line,  which  is  the 
bottom  of  the  templet  or  box,  the  same  as  a  «,  in  Fig.  5,  in  its  proper  position ;  and  then 
the  point  a,  is  moved  round  to  c,  in  Fig.  6,  which  will  produce  tlie  bottom  A  in  Fig.  6 
on  a  horizontal  plane ;  and  consequently  it  will  be  observed  that  6  c  in  A,  Fig.  6,  is  the 
same  as  a  a  in  B,  Fig.  5,  which  is  the  bottom,  and  h  e  in  B,  Fig.  6,  when  turned  up  in 
due  form,  will  form  the  side  a  d  in  D,  Fig,  5,  and  then  as  a  matter  of  course,  it  will  be 
observed,  that  C,  in  Fig.  6,  will  be  the  top  of  B  in  Fig.  6,  and  D,  in  Fig.  5,  and  j  jjj  in 
C,  FJig.  6,  will  be  the  cuts  across  the  side,  and  bottom  A  at  h  h  h  h ;  therefore  the  lines 
h  i,  Ji  i,  will  be  the  side  cuts,  and  at  the  same  time  it  will  be  seen  that  ef  in  C,  Fig.  6, 
will  be  the  same  as  rf  e  in  D,  Fig.  5.  Now  according  to  the  horizontal  plane.  Fig.  6,  it 
will  appear  to  cut  mitres  to  form  an  angle  of  45  degrees  when  put  together  on  a  hori- 
zontal plane,  but  when  Fig.  6  is  put  together  in  the  form  of  Fig.  5,  it  will  be  observed 
to  cut  the  mouldings  A  A  in  Fig.  5,  which  is  the  same  as  A  C  in  Fig.  2,  to  mitre  me- 
chanically to  B  the  given  mould  in  Fig.  2.  as  above  explained. 

TO  DIIAW  fig's.  5  AND  SIX  TEMPLETS  OR  JIITRE-feOX,  TO  CUT  THE  MOULDINGS  A  AND  C  IN  FIG.  2. 

First  draw  Fig.  .5,  a  section  or  end  of  the  mitre-box,  Fig.  6,  in  the  same  bevel  with  the 
modillion,  Fig.  2,  in  order  to  produce  the  proper  shape  and  bevels  of  the  sides  and  bottom 
of  the  box,  Fig.  6,  to  correspond  with  the  rake  and  plumb  lines  in  the  modillion  Fig.  2. 
B  in  Fig.  5,  is  the  bottom  of  Fig.  6  at  A,  and  is  the  same  distance  from  a  to  a  that  it  is 
from  b  to  a,  on  the  doited  lines  starling  at  h  from  B  in  Fig.  6,  which  is  transferred  to  the 
bottom  A  in  Fig.  6,  by  setting  one  point  of  the  compass  on  6,  Fig.  6,  and  extending  the 
other  point  down  in  «,  then  let  the  point  on  b  stand,  and  move  the  point  a  round  to  c  in 
Fig.  6,  which  shows  the  inclined  bottom  B  of  Fig.  5  transferred  to  Fig.  6,  which  lays 
here  in  a  horizontal  position,  but  will  have  the  same  surface,  and  be  the  same  shape  or 
bevel  of  B,  in  Fig.  5.  B  B  in  Fig.  6,  are  the  sides  of  the  box,  and  are  of  the  same  shape 
and  size  of  D  D  in  Fig.  5.  C  C  in  Fig.  6  is  the  upper  edge  of  B  B,  when  turned  up  in 
the  form  of  D  D  in  Fig.  5,  and  the  distances  d  g  and  e/,  in  c  c,  Fig.  6,  is  the  same  as  g  c, 
and  d  c  in  D  D,  Fig.  5 ;  h  h — h  h  across  A,  in  Fig.  6,  represents  the  mitres  the  same  as 
in  a  common  box;  hj,  &c.  in  B  represents  the  side  cuts  ;  j  j^  &c.  in  c  c  represents  the 
cross  cuts,  which  when  turned  up  in  the  form  of  D  D  in  Fig.  5,  will  correspond  with  h  h, 
&c.  in  A,  Fig.  6,  which  will  complete  the  templet  required  to  cut  the  mouldings  A  C  in 
Fig.  2,  and  likewise  applied  at  A  C  in  the  section  of  the  box  at  Fig.  5. 

Note. — The  same  rule  that  will  cut  the  joint  of  the  moulding  C  in  Fig.  2,  will  cut  the 
joint  of  A  in  Fig.  1.  This  rule  I  have  not  seen  explained  in  the  publications  that  have 
tell  in  my  way,  although  it  may  be  understood  by  many.  ♦ 

FIG.  7,  to  obtain  the  covering  for  a  polygonal  DOME. 

The  plan  of  the  polygon  is  repre.sented  at  the  letters  71  0  p  r  q  s,  and  the  covering  at 
ABC,  and  obtained  as  follows  : 

Take  the  base  line  0  4  in  F,  at  Fig.  7,  and  transfer  it  to  0  4  in  Fig.  8,  then  describe 

9 


34  GROIN  ARCHES  AND  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 

the  circle  4  0,  which  will  be  a  true  circle,  and  one  half  of  the  given  rib,  then  divide  the 
back,  or  circumference  of  Fig.  S,  from  0  to  4  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  say  four, 
then  drop  ordinate  lines  from  1,2,  3, 4,  perpendicular  to  1,2,  3,  4,  on  the  base  line — then 
transfer  the  distance  0  1 — I  2 — 2  3 — 3  4  to  tlie  same  and  corresponding  figures  on  the 
•  base  line  at  Fig.  7,  then  describe  the  dotted  lines  1,  1,  1, — 2,  2,  2,-3,  3,  3,  at'right  angles 
across  the  base  in  F,  Fig.  7,  to  intersect  1,  2,  3,  in  the  same  line,  which  is  directly  under 
the  same  figures  on  the  back  of  the  given  rib  at  Fig.  8. 

To  describe  the  covering  A  of  the  part  contained  in  the  letter  F,  Fig.  7,  take  the  dis- 
tances 0,  1,2,  3,  4,  on  the  back  of  the  given  rib  at  Fig.  8,  which  is  the  stretchout  of  it, 
and  transfer  tliem  to  0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  in  A,  the  covering,  then  draw  the  lines  1,  1, 1, — 2,  2, 2, — 
3,  3^,  in  A,  across  the  stretchout  lines  of  the  back,  and  at  right  angles  to  it,  then  raise 
the  lines  1  1 — 2  2 — 3  3  from  the  angular  lines,  or  seat  of  the  angular  ribs,  each  side  of  F 
to  intersect  1  1 — 2  2 — 3  3  at  each  extremity  of  A,  the  covering,  then  describe  the  lines 
u  4  and  p  4  at  the  two  extremities  of  A  to  intersect  at  the  letters  1, 2. 3, 4,  and  the  cover- 
ings for  that  part  of  the  dome  will  be  complete.  Therefore  the  executor  will  understand, 
that  in  covering  this  dome,  the  boards,  copper,  or  any  other  material,  may  be  cut  by  the 
mould  or  pattern  A,  any  Avidth,  the  same  as  on  any  straight  surface.  The  same  pij)cess 
will  produce  B  and  C.  The  angle  rib  for  E  and  B  in  Fig.  7,  is  represented  at  ^j  4  in 
Fig.  8,  and  for  D  C,  Fig.  7,  at  cj  4  and  r  4,  Fig.  8 ;  r  4  is  the  angle  rib,  and  q  4,  the  body 
on  the  same  figures  in  D.  From  the  above  explanations,  it  will  be  understood  that  the 
coverings  ABC  will  bend  over  their  respective  planes  FED,  and  also  will  answer  for. 
the  opposite  sides  of  the  polygon. 

Fig.  9  is  a  right-angled  oblong  dome,  and  the  covering  is  obtained  precisely  by  the 
same  process,  and  is  figured  by  the  same  figures :  consequently  it  will  not  require  any 
further  explanation  than  to  explain  the  different  parts:  A  is  lialf  of  the  given  rib,  and  is 
described  by  a  true  circle ;  B  is  a  body  rib,  and  got  by  transferring  the  distances  1  1 — 
2  2  &c.,  from  A  to  the  same  figures  in  B,  or  otherwise  with  a  trammel,  by  taking  the 
distances  4  4,  and  4  0,  in  the  trammel  as  described  in  Plate  XXI,  at  P'ig.  5 ;  C  is  an  an- 
irle  or  hip  rib,  got  by  the  same  process.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  perpendicular  or  vertical 
lines  4  4,  of  A  B  C,  are  all  of  an  equal  height,  and  the  base  lines  4  4 — 1 0 — 4  0,  of  A  B  C, 
are  all  of  difTerent  spans,  they  will,  notwithstanding,  range  when  mechanically  reared 
over  their  respective  seats  or  bases.  For  the  jack-ribs,  the  student  will  refer  to  the  let- 
ters E  and  H,  in  Plate  XXV,  where  the  cutting  and  fitting  of  the  jack-ribs  are  clearly 
explained.  Z  is  the  covering  over  one  quarter  of  tiie  dome  at  B,  and  the  line  04  in  Z,is 
equal  to  the  stretchout  of  0  4,  the  curve  or  back  of  the  rib  B;  X  is  the  covering  over  the 
side  C,  and  the  line  0  4  in  X  is  the  stretchout  of  the  curve  or  back  of  the  given  rib  A, 
consequently  the  line  0  4  in  X  will  bind  over  the  back  of  the  given  rib  A  in  execution. 
The  boarding  for  this  dome  may  be  cut  as  directed  in  Fig.  7. 

PL.  22. 

Explains  the  construction  and  method  of  executing  a  series  of  groin  arches,  restiiig  upon 
an  inclined  plane,  the  widest  opening,  or  body  range  having  its  descent  in  the  direction 
of  the  inclination  of  the  plane;  the  transvei-se  ranges  are  therefore  level.  The  ribs  in 
both  directions  are  set  in  vertical  planes.  The  ribs  in  the  body-range  are  semi-ellipsis; 
those  of  the  sides  will  also  be  semi-ellipsis,  but  will  not  have  their  axis  in  a  vertical  and 
horizontal  position. 

REFERENCES    TO   THE    FIGURES. 

Fig.  1,  Is  the  plan. 

Fig.  2,  Elevation  of  the  transverse  openings  with  their  centres,  and  likewise  a  section 
of  each  body-rib  at  1  2  3  4,  «&.c. 


GROIN  ARCHES  AND  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY.  .   ^^ 

Fig.  3,  Section  of  the  body-range  at  right  angles,  to  the  plane  of  its  inclination. 

Fig.  4,  IMoulds  for  describing  the  angles,  at  the  intersection  of  the  body-range  and 
transverse  ribs. 

Fig.  5,  is  an  elevation  of  the  centre  in  the  body-range,  and  likewise  a  section  of  the 
transverse  ribs,  (see  the  Fig's.  12  3  4,  &c.)  which  are  the  sections. 

TO  DRAW  AND  CONNECT  THE  ANGLE  AND  JACK-RIBS. 

First  draw  the  body-rib.  Fig.  5,  by  the  same  method  as  that  of  Fig's.  5  and  9,  in  Plate 
XXV,  then  draw  the  dotted  ordinate  lines /o,  &c.  from  Fig.  3  through  Fig.  5,  to  inter- 
sect the  lines  A  L  and  M  B  in  the  plan  Fig.  1,  which  are  the  seats  of  the  angle  ribs ; 
from  thence  draw  the  dotted  lines  out  of  the  curve  of  the  rib  in  Fig.  2,  making  the  dis- 
tance at  each  ordinate  the  same  distance  of  the  ordinates  in  Fig's  3  and  5. 

TO  DRAW  THE  MOULD,  FIG.  4. 

Draw  the  ordinates  from  the  surface  of  the  transverse  rib  in  Fig.  2,  perpendicular  to 
the  inclination  of  the  plane,  then  draw  the  line  1  2,  then  take  the  stretchout  of  d  tf  in 
Fig.  3,  or  5,  and  transfer  it  to  v  w  in  Fig.  5.  hence  it  will  be  understood  that  the  line  v  lo 
wraps  over  one  half  of  the  body-range :  now  it  is  necessary  to  produce  the  angle  on  the 
boarding  of  the  body-range ;  first,  it  will  be  understood  that  the  body-range  is  covered 
entire  with  boards,  as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  5,  marked  with  Fig.  12 :  now,  to  produce  the 
angles,  take  the  moulds  4  and  5,  in  Fig.  5,  and  apply  the  letters  z  q  r  7j  to  the  letters  z  i 
k  y,  at  the  pieces  in  Fig.  2,  and  bend  them  over  the  boarding  of  the  body-range,  and 
they  will  produce  the  angle  required  for  the  boarding  of  the  transverse-range  to  join  on 
the  boarding  of  the  body-range. 

Note.— If  any  part  of  this  "inclined  plane  should  not  be  clearly  explained,  I  will  refer 
the  student  to  the  horizontal  plane  in  Plate  XXIV,  which  is  in  every  respect  more  prac- 
tically explained,  and  is  also  precisely  the  same  as  this  in  every  process,  and  no  difference 
prevails  only  in  their  planes. 

The  above  is  a  design  of  groin  arches  for  brick  or  stone.  The  two  following  are  lath- 
ed and  plastered  groin  arches. 

REFERENCES  TO  THE  FIGURES. 

Fig.  6,  Plan  of  the  apertiures  and  piers,  (see  the  letters  A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H,  the  plan 
of  the  piers. 

Fig.  7,  Elevation  of  the  body-rib. 

Fig.  8,  Elevation  of  the  transverse-rib,  drawn  to  correspond  with  the  body-range. 

Fig.  9,  Elevation  of  the  transverse-rib,  drawn  to  show  the  practical  application  to 
the  angle  ribs  in  Fig.  11. 

Fig.  10,  an  angle-rib,  drawn  agreeable  to  the  inclination  of  the  plane,  to  correspond 
with  Fig's,  7  and  8. 

Fig.  11,  Geometrical  plan  of  the  hip  or  angle  ribs,  with  the  body  and  transverse  ribs 
mitred  to  them. 

REFERENCES  TO  FIG.  12,  AN  UNDER  PITCHED  GROIN, 

Fig.  12,  Plan  and  elevation  of  an  under  pitched  groin. 
Fig.  13,  Section  of  the  body-range. 

Fig.  14,  Section  of  lunetts  or  under  pitched  vaults,  mitring  into  a  large  vault,  raising 
to  a  greater  height. 

Fig.  15,  Section  of  the  angle-rib. 


36  GROIN   ARCHES  AND  PRACTICAL   CARPENTRY. 

EXPLANATION  TO  THE  PLANS  AND  ELEVATIONS  OF  THE  INCLINED  PLANE. 

'First,  locate  the  piers  ABCDEFGHat  their  proper  distances  for  the  apertures, 
tlien  the  inclination  of  A  B,  then  determine  ihe  body-rib,  Fig.  7,  which  is  a  semi-ellipsis, 
divide  the  concave  of  Fig.  7,  into  any  number  of  equal  parts  1234/c567  8,  then  drop 
ordinate  lines  from  thence  perpendicular  to  the  base  line  x  .r,  then  extend  the  same  in 
dotted  lines  until  they  intersect  the  seat  of  the  groin  o  p,  raise  the  dotted  lines  p23  4:V 
5  6  7  8  from  the  seat  of  the  groin  perpendicular  to  the  line  x  x,  until  they  meet  their  cor- 
responding figures  on  the  inclined  line  A  B,  and  the  concave  of  Fig.  8 ;  hence  it  will  be 
understood  by  the  student  that  Fig.  8  is  got  by  taking  the  distances  2  2, 3  3  &c.  in  Fig.  7, 
and  transferring  them  to  the  corresponding  figures  in  Fig.  8,  which  will  produce  a  cor- 
responding curve  in  Fig.  8  to  Fig.  7.  The  curve  will  be  traced  bending  a  slip  of  wood  to 
the  figures  12  3  4,  &c. 

TO    DRAW    THE   ANGLE-RIE,    PIG.    10. 

Draw  the  ordinates^j  2  34«5678  perpendicular  to  the  seat  of  the  groin  op,  across 
to  the  corresponding  figures  in  the  concave  of  the  rib,  Fig.  10,  then  take  the  height  q  r, 
in  tlie  inclining  line  A  B,  which  is  the  height  it  raises  passing  over  one  opening  and  ap- 
ply it  to  o  s  from  the  seat  of  the  groin,  then  the  curve  is  produced  in  the  same  manner  as 

Fig.  8. 

TO  SHOW  THE  APPLICATION  OF  THE  JACK-RIBS  TO  THE  GROIN  OR  ANGLE-RIBS. 

Fig.  14,  Is  a  plan  of  the  angle  and  jack-ribs.  In  Fig.  9,  it  will  be  seen  that  I  2  is 
equal  to  1  2  in  Fig.  14,  and  so  on ;  3  4,  5  6,  7  8,  in  Fig.  9,  are  equal  to  the  same  figures 
in  Fig.  14 — and  consequently  they  will  correspond  with  each  other,  and  form  a  complete 
groin. 

EXPLANATION  TO  FIG.  12,    AN  UNDER-PITCHED  GROIN    CEILING. 

First  it  must  be  understood  that  f  o  g  is  the  seat  of  the  groin-ribs ;  A  D  and  A  D  the 
seat  of  the  body-ribs  C  B ;  and  12  3  4  5,  &c.  the  seat  of  the  beams  of  1  2345,  &c.  in 
tlie  body-rib  C  B.  The  beams  are  straight,  and  lathed  the  same  as  straight  or  horizontal 
ceilings. 

TO  DRAW  THE  ANGLE  RIB,    FIG.   15. 

Extend  tlie  opening  of  the  body-range  out  to  A  D,  then  draw  a  semi-circle  at  Fig.  13> 
equal  to  the  dotted  arch  line  C  B  under  the  beams;  also  draw  the  dotted  lines  oo,  n  vi, 
and  ]i  h,  y  ~,  equal  to  the  lunettes  or  projection  of  the  undcr-pitch  opening,  which  is  the 
distance  of  o  i  at  Fig.  14  ;  then  describe  the  angle  or  seat  of  the  groin  or  hip  at  ^  o  /, 
then  raise  the  line  o  2  equal  to  n  in  in  Fig  13,  and  i  h  in  Fig.  1 4,  the  height  of  the  under- 
pitch,  perpendicular  to  the  angle  o  g,  then  transfer  the  ordinates^j  q,  &.c.  as  in  the  pre- 
ceding examples,  and  the  curve  of  Fig.  15  will  be  ])roduced. 

Note. — The  lathing  in  this  example  is  bent  under  the  beams,  which  is  not  tlie  case 
where  the  jack-ribs  mitre  or  join  on  to  the  hip  or  groin  rib,  when  at  right  angles  to  the 
sides  or  butments  of  the  groin. 

•  PL.  23. 

Represents  two  windows  or  doors;  the  first  standing  in  an  oblique  wall,  and  the  latter  in 
a  circular  wall. 

Fig.  1,  Phui  and  elevation  of  an  obli(|ue  window  or  door;  the  elevation  is  conqjosed 
of  the  circle  G  II  li — the  plan  of  the  oblic[uc  parallel  lines  A  B  C  D. 


GROIN    ARCHES    AND   PRACTICAL   CARPENTRY.  37 

Fig.  2,  Soffit,  obtained  by  taking  the  distances  from  the  lines  G  B,  to  the  lines  A  B, 
and  D  C,  in  Fig.  1. 

To  obtain  Fig.  2,  draw  the  line  B  G  F,  at  right  angles  to  the  sides  or  jamb  lines  B  C, 
and  A  D.  To  produce  the  stretchout  of  tlie  line  or  head  G  H  B,  in  Fig.  1 ;  place  one 
foot  of  the  compass  on  B,  and  extend  the  other  out  to  G ;  let  B  stand  and  move  G  round 
to  I;  then  draw  I  J,  touching  the  circle  at  B,  and  H  J  will  be  one  half  of  the  stretchout 
of  the  circle  G  H  B ;  take  H  J  in  the  compass,  and  step  it  twice  from  G  out  to  F,  which 
will  be  the  stretchout  of  the  soffit.  Place  the  compass  to  1  2,  in  Fig.  1,  and  transfer  it  to 
1  2,  Fig.  2,  and  2  3  to  2  3,  3  4  to  3  4,  &c. ;  then  take  2  2,  across  the  plan  Fig.  1,  and 
transfer  it  to  2  2,  in  Fig.  2,  and  thus  through  from  A  D  to  B  C,  and  F  E ;  then  trace 
round  by  the  figures  2  2,  3  3,  4  4,  &c.  out  to  F  E,  and  the  surface  contained  between  the 
lines  D  A,  E  F,  will  be  the  soffit  required.  This  soffit  is  equal  in  length  to  the  circular 
head  G  H  B,  and  will  bend  under  it  and  be  in  range  witli  the  plan  A  B  C  D. 

Fig.  3,  is  a  circuLirhead  and  circular  base,  with  a  soffit  dra\vn  at  Fig.  4.  The  pro- 
cess of  drawing  is  precisely  the  same  as  Fig's.  1  and  2.  A  B  C  D  is  the  plan  and  shape 
of  the  wall;  A  D  E  F,  is  the  construction  and  size  of  the  soffit  when  stretched  out.  This 
soffit,  when  practically  applied  and  bent  under  the  line  A  H  B,  will  correspond  precisely 
with  the  plan  A  B  C  D. 

Note.— The  figures  1  2  3  4  5  6  7,  «&c.  on  the  lines  A  H  B,  in  Fig's.  1  and  3,  are  the 
corresponding  figures  with  the  figures  on  G  F,  in  Fig's.  2  and  4,  and  likewise  in  plans 
and  soffits. 

PL.  24. 

Exhibits  a  plan  of  groin  arches,  designed  for  brick  or  stone  materials,  resting  on  twelve 
piers,  which  are  represented  by  the  letters  A  B  C  D,  &c. 

It  is  often  the  case,  that  in  architectural  studies,  the  student  labours  under  disadvan- 
tages at  the  first  examination,  for  want  of  references  to  the  different  parts  engaged  in  the 
problems  which  he  wishes  to  learn;  therefore  I  shall  continue  to  give  them  in  all  intricate 
drawings. 

REFERENCES    TO    THE   DIFFERENT    PARTS. 

A  B  C  D  E,  &c.  plans  of  the  piers. 

Fig.  1,  Elevation  of  the  centring  of  the  elliptical  range,  and  likewise  a  sectional  view 
of  the  serni-circled  centt-es. 

Fig.  2,  Sect'ons  of  the  covering,  or  boarding  to  the  elliptical  range  ;  (see  o  o  o  o  o,  the 
ends  of  the  boards.) 

Fig.  3,  Sections  of  the  semi-circle  range,  and  likewise  the  given  height  of  the  groin. 

Fig.  4,  Is  a  sectional  view  of  the  elliptical  centring,  and  an  elevation  of  the  given 
centre. 

Fig.  5,  Is  a  mould  or  pattern  for  determining  the  groin,  or  angle  of  the  two  ranges. 

Fig.  6,  Is  an  elevation  of  the  given  rib,  or  centre,  and  likewise  three  jack-ribs. 

1^  ig.  7,  Mould  or  pattei-n  for  forming  the  angle  or  groin  in  connection  with  Fig.  5. 

To  erect  a  number  of  groin  arches,  the  first  thing  necessary,  is  to  determine  the  open- 
ing and  height  thereof.  For  the  height,  in  this  example,  I  have  taken  a  semi-circle  for 
the  summit,  or  given  height :  now  as  the  given  height  is  of  a  semi-circle,  and  much  less 
span  than  that  of  Fig.  2,  it  follows  that  2  must  necessarily  be  of  an  ellipsis ;  to  obtain 
this  ellipsis,  the  student  will  refer  to  Plate  XXV,  and  he  will  obtain  the  necessary  parti- 
culars therein  at  Fig.  5. 

In  the  execution  of  a  brick  or  stone  groin  arch,  it  is  necessary  to  erect  an  entire  range 
of  centres,  either  one  way  or  the  other.     (In  this,  I  have  taken  those  of  the  greatest  span, 

10 


38  GROIN   ARCUES    AND   PRACTICAL   CARPENTRY. 

which  is  considered  most  praclicul.)  It  will  be  seen  that  one  of  these  openings  is  covered 
with  boards,  and  tlie  other  has  only  the  plan  of  the  centres,  (see  m  n  oji  rj,  &c.  the  plans 
of  the  centres,)  on  which  the  elevation  /  under  Fig.  1  stands.  The  opening  between  the 
piers  A  B  E  D  G  H  I  and  K,  which  is  boarded  over,  is  also  timbered  the  same  as  the 
opening  between  the  opposite  piers  and  letters,  it  being  understood  that  the  body  ranges 
or  openings  are  covered  with  boards  or  plank  entire,  from  one  end  to  the  other  It  is 
next  necessary  to  cover  the  lesser  openings,  consequently  it  will  be  necessary  to  obtain 
the  seat  of  the  angle  on  the  covering,  to  correspond  with  tlie  angles  on  the  plan  at  the 
letters  a  b  c  d,  for  which  proceed  thus  :  Divide  Fig  s.  2  and  3  into  as  many  distances  as 
there  are  boards  or  plank  to  cover  the  same,  then  drop  dotted  lines  from  each  joint  or 
board  perpendicular  to  the  lines  a  b  and  c,  and  from  thence  continue  the  same  lines  to  the 
diagonal  line  ab  c  and  ab  d,  which  has  the  same  figures  as  those  on  the  circular  line  at 
Fig's.  2  and  3,  and  are  likewise  the  seat  of  the  groin  or  angle. 

To  obtain  the  seat  of  the  angle  on  the  covering  of  the  elliptical  range,  get  the  stretch- 
out of  Fig.  2,  from  a  to  6,  aand  place  it  at  any  convenient  place,  say  Fig.  5,  (see  the  line 
a  b  in  Fig.  5,  which  is  the  stretchout,)  then  take  the  distances;  d  from  the  line  a  b  from  one 
pier  to  the  other  of  the  capital  letters  A  and  B,  and  set  to  e  d  in  Fig.  5,  5  5,  9  9,  &c.  and 
transfer  them  to  the  corresponding  letters  in  Fig.  5,  and  then  strike  a  line  through  all 
of  those  points,  and  it  wall  produce  the  necessary  line  for  the  seat  of  ihe  angle  on  the 
covering.  It  wall  be  proper  to  observe,  that  those  parts  in  the  line  a  b,  Fig.  5,  are  just 
equal  to  the  width  of  the  boards  in  the  circle  at  Fig,  2,  for  a  6  in  5  is  the  stretchout  or2. 

To  apply  Fig.  5  to  the  covering,  first  it  is  understood  that  Fig.  2  is  the  covering :  ac- 
cordingly it  will  be  proper  to  suppose  Fig.  2  standing  on  the  level  a  b,  and  also  under- 
boarding  ;  hence  it  is  evident  that  if  the  pattern  at  the  letters  a  c  b  d  are  bent  over  the 
boarding  at  a  c  b  d,  and  marked  round  accordingly,  it  will  produce  the  seat  of  the  angle 
required  ;  to  obtain  the  opposite,  just  I'everse  the  pattern.  I  have  also  given  Fig.  7  to 
bend  over  Fig.  3,  wdrich  is  obtained  by  the  same  process,  and  likewise  applied  in  the  same 
manner.  This,  however,  is  more  essential  to  cut  the  ends  of  the  boards  to  joint  on  to 
the  body-range,  than  for  any  other  purpose.  To  cut  the  boards,  it  will  be  observed,  that 
the  distances  marked  in  Fig.  7,  ai-e  equal  to  the  boarding  in  Fig.  3;  therefore,  if  they  are- 
cut  according  to  thi-  circles  c  d  and  a  d,  they  will  make  a  perfect  joint  to  the  boarding 
of  the  body-range. 

Fig.  6  is  an  elevation  of  one  of  the  semi-circled  centres  and  their  jack-ribs,  (see  the 
sections  at  Fig.  1,)  /at  Fig.  6,  is  an  elevation  of  f  in  Fig.  1,  g  and  h  in  Fig.  6  are  also 
elevations  of  g  6  in  Fig.  1.  It  will  be  understood  that  fg  h  in  the  plan,  are  the  seats 
of  the  jack-ribs  f  g  hiw  Fig.  6  ;  and  likewise,  that  f  g  h  will  set  on  the  circled  sides 
of  the  body-range,  consequently  they  will  require  beveling.  The  bevel  may  be  obtained 
•by  applying  to  the  sections  f  g  h  in  Fig.  1,  where  the  bevel  may  be  seen  at  the  seat 
of  each  section. 


REFERENCES  TO  THE  SMALL  LETTERS. 


I,  in  Fig.  1,  represents  an  elevation  on  the  elliptical  centre. 

0  0  0,  in  /,  represents  the  boarding. 
in  n  op,  &c.  represents  the  plans  of  the  centres,  (see  /,  elevation  of  centre.) 

0  0  0  0  0,  long  side  of  the  piers  C  F  I,  represents  the  boarding. 

ab  c  efg  h  ij  k,  plans.     The  same  letters  in  Fig.  1,  and  also  in  6. 

12  3  4.^,  &c.  by  the  side  of  the  piers  B  E  H,  represents  tlie  plates. 

Note. — It  may  be  understood  that  a  bed  at  Fig.  5,  will  answer  the  same  purpose  as 
a  8  d  in  Fig.  5,  for  they  precisely  fit  each  other. 


GROIN  ARCHES  AND   PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 


39 


PL.   25. 

Is  a  plastered  groin  arcli  designed  for  an  oblong  ceiling,  and  represented  at  its  angles  by 
the  letters  ABC  and  D.  The  angle  or  groin  ribs  in  this  example,  are  all  connected  at 
the  centre  of  the  ceiling;  consequently  it  may  be  termed  an  entire  groin  ceiling — whereas 
of  any  part  of  the  hori.ion  or  centre  was  horizontal  or  level,  it  may  be  termed  a  groin 
ceiling  with  a  horizontal  centre,  which  is  often  the  case  and  affords  room  for  ornamental 
centre  ilowers,  (by  some  called  centre  pieces.) 

This  design  may  be  executed  of  one,  or  one  and  one  quarter  inch  boards. 

]\oTE. — It  would  not  be  unsafe,  to  execute  a  ceiling  of  this  kind,  of  1  1-4  inch  plank, 
over  a  span  of  from  30  to  40  feet,  if  care  should  be  taken  in  the  execution  to  avoid  splits, 
by  nailing  in  improper  places. 

In  this  example  I  have  represented  a  plan  of  the  ribs,  with  the  bevels  applied  at  their 
places  over  the  ground  whicii  they  are  to  stand  to  the  elevation  with  the  square  applied, 
to  show  the  manner  of  cutting  the  common  ribs  to  join  the  angle  ribs — plan  of  the  ribs 
laid  horizontally  over  the  elevation,  with  the  bevel  applied,  to  show  the  method  of  joining 
them  to  the  angle  rib,  and  also  the  angle  rib,  and  the  method  of  drawing  it  witii  three 
strips  of  wood,  in  place  of  the  ti-ammel  moving  through  a  groove,  which  produces  the 
same  curve  as  that  of  the  trammel,  and  indeed  is  the  same  principle,  and  always  con- 
A^enient  if  the  grooved  trammel  should  not  be  at  hand. 

TO  DRAW  THE  RIBS  TO  AN  OBLONG  PLAN. 

First,  determine  the  height  of  the  ceiling  in  the  centre.  In  this  design,  the  groin  rib  at 
Fig.  2,  is  a  semi-circle;  consequently  it  raises  one  half  of  the  conjugate  diameter,  (that  is 
one  half  of  the  smallest  span,)  and  thus  the  given  rib  being  a  semi-circle,  the  transverse 
and  angle  rib  required,  will  be  a  semi-ellipsis,  which  may  be  drawn  by  two  methods.  In 
this  example  I  have  given  both  ;  one  by  transferring  lines  from  the  given  rib  Fig,  2,  capi- 
tal F,  to  the  other  two  ribs,  capital  F,  Fig.  1  and  Fig.  4,  which  is  both  tedious  and  incor- 
rect in  practice;  the  other  is  drawn  by  a  trammel  and  two  strips  of  wood,  and  repre- 
sented at  Fig.  5. 

The  groin  rib  being  got;  at  Fig.  2,  proceed  to  draAv  Fig.  I ,  the  angle  rib.  First  divide 
the  semi-circumference  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  say  seven ;  then  drop  lines  from 
12  3,  &c.  perpendicular  to  tiie  base  line  B  L,  to  intersect  12  3,  &c. ;  then  let  the  same 
lines  extend  to  the  figures  1  2  3,  &c.  on  the  base  of  the  angle  rib.  Fig  1 ;  draw  I  1,2  2, 
3  3,  &c.  at  right  angles  to  the  base  line  B  D ;  take  the  distance  1  1,  in  Fig.  2,  and  transfer 
it  to  1  1,  in  Fig.  1,  and  so  also  22,  3  3,  &c.  to  the  same  figxires  in  Fig.  1;  and  by  tracing 
round  by  1  2  3  4  5  6  7,  one  half  of  the  angle  rib  will  be  produced:  and  to  obtain  the 
other  half,  proceed  the  same  way.  The  angle  rib  being  drawn  direct  from  one  angle  of 
the  ceiling  to  the  other,  (that  is,  on  the  middle  and  thick  line  between  B  and  C ;)  it  will 
be  observed  that  the  outer  edge  of  the  rib  will  not  be  in  range  with  the  body  range,  and 
will  not  be  so  convenient  to  nail  the  ends  of  the  lath :  therefore,  in  order  to  make  the 
groin  perfect,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  the  angle  ribs  to  accord  in  shape  with  Fig's.  6, 
7,  and  8.  It  will  also  be  observed,  that  ihe  angled  recesses  in  Fig's.  6,  7,  and  8,  are  not 
the  same  distance  in  from  the  two  extreme  points,  which  is  produced  by  the  plan  of  the 
groin's  being  of  an  oblong  figure ;  whereas  if  square,^(that  is,  the  same  size  on  all  four 
of  its  sides,)  it  would  be  the  same.  It  will  be  further  observed,  that  it  requires  more  on 
the  side  C,  tiian  on  the  side  B,  which  is  likewise  caused  by  C  being  on  the  side,  and  B 
on  the  end. 

TO  PRODUCE  THE  INNER  CIRCLE  THAT  JOINS  ON  THE  SIDE  AT  C,  AND  END  AT  B. 

'  First,  draw  the  lesser  or  inner  circle,  under  Fig.  2,  the  given  rib  ;  then  take  the  shorter 


40  GROIN    ARCHES  AND  PRACTICAL    CARPENTRY. 

distances  2  2,  3  3,  &c.  in  Fig.  2,  and  transfer  them  to  the  same  figures  in  Fig.  1 ;  trace 
round  as  abo\  e  described  for  the  outer  circle,  and  the  circle  required  to  correspond  with 
the  angle  and  body,  aa-III  be  produced. 

TO  SHOW  THE  METHOD  OF  CUTTING  THE  BODY  RIBS,  TO  JOINT  WITH  THE  ANGLE    RIBS. 

First,  determine  the  location  of  the  ribs,  say  at  E  F  G  and  H ;  then  raise  two  perpen- 
diculars from  the  letters  j  i,  in  G,  to  cross  the  rib  Fig.  4,  which,  when  raised  up,  will 
range  directly  over  G;  then  draw  the  lines  y  p,  parallel  to  the  base  line  C  D;  now  take 
the  square  and  apply  it  to  the  Fig's.  8  9  10;tlien  scribe  across  from  8  to  9,  and  the 
plumb-cut  i-equired  will  be  produced.  To  get  the  cut  atlhe  joint,  just  slide  tlie  square 
out  to  X  y,  Aviiich  will  give  the  cut  required.  Proceed  the  same  way  down  at  the 
square  II  12  13,  for  the  rib  H. 

TO  COT  THE  JOINT,  JOINING  ON  THE  SIDE  OF  THE  ANGLE  RIB. 

Take  the  bevel  14  15  16,  and  apply  it  to  H,  the  plan  of  the  rib,  and  join  the  blade 
14  16,  to  the  plan  of  the  angle  rib  A  D;  then  take  the  bevel  and  apply  it  to  H,  directly 
over  the  rib  Fig.  4,  which  is  the  same  length  of  the  shortest  rib,  (see  the  letters  a,  h,  c, 
d,  c,f,  in  II  A,  which  shows  that  if  the  shortest  rib  in  Fig.  4  is  raised  perpendicular  and 
set  over  the  plan  H,  would  be  in  its  practical  position,  and  also  joint  to  the  angle  rib.) 
It  must  be  observed  that  the  stock  of  the  bevel  must  lay  on  the  line  II  (j,  which  is  parallel 
to  the  base,  and  by  applying  the  stock  thus,  the  blade  will  not  lay  flat  on  the  under  side, 
but  will  only  touch  at  the  lower  and  opposite  corner,  but  at  the  same  time,  when  thus 
applied  and  cut  accordingly,  the  joints  will  be  perfect. 

REFERENCES  TO  THE  FIGURES. 

A,  B,  C,  D,  plan  of  the  groin. 

Fig.  1,  Elevation  of  the  angle  rib. 

Fig.  2,  Elevation  of  the  given  rib  across  the  smallest  span. 

Fig.  3,  One  half  of  the  angle  rib  in  the  shape  when  cut  out  of  the  board. 

Fig.  4,  One  half  of  the  transverse  rib,  or  rib  over  the  greatest  span. 

Fig.  5,  An  ElcA^ation  of  the  angle  rib  drawn  by  a  trammel. 

Fig's.  6,  7,  8,  plan  of  the  angle  rib  at  its  butments. 

t,  u,  V,  10,  X,  y,  represent  an  elevation  of  the  rib,  Fig.  2,  when  cut  out  of  the  board,  and 
likewise  are  the  same  at  Fig.  4,  in  the  transverse  rib. 

E  F  G  H,  ground  plan  of  the  ribs.  It  will  be  noticed  that  E  F  G  H  are  placed  over 
the  elevation  of  the  ribs,  which  is  done  for  the  purpose  of  conveying  a  proper  understand- 
ing of  them. 

a,  b,  c,  d,  c,f,  m  G  H,  over  the  elevation,  will  correspond  with  the  same  G,  H,  in  the 
plan. 

14,  15,  16,  bevel  applied. 

8,  9,  10,  Square  applied  to  fhe  horizontal  y,  p. 

11,  12,  13,  Square  applied  to  cut  the  joint  of  the  short  rib,  to  the  angle  rib. 

TO  DRAW  FIG.  5  WITH  A  TRAMMEL. 

First,  draw  the  line  C  B,  the  base  line  of  the  angle  rib  Fig,  1,  in  the  plan ;  then  get 
the  centre  of  C  B,  and  raise  a  perpendicular  therefrom  equal  to  7  7,  the  height  of  the 
ceiling  at  the  given  rib.  Fig.  2 ;  then  take  the  height  7  7,  and  apply  it  to  the  trammel 
at  1,  on  the  circle  of  the  ellipsis,  and  2,  on  the  base  line;  then  the  distance  1  2,  on  the 
trammel,  will  be  just  equal  to  1  2,  in  the  perpendicular  lines  at  the  centre ;  then  take  the 


PKACTICAL   CARPENTRY. 


41 


semi-transverse  diameter  of  the  line  C  B,  which  is  from  C  to  2,  and  apply  it  to  the 
trammel  form  1  to  4,  which  is  also  placed  oiv  the  perpendicular  line  1  4  ;  now  suppose 
the  trammel  first  located  perpendicular,  and  1  4  of  tlie  trammel  would  be  equal  to,  and 
on  1  4  on  the  perpendicular  line.  The  trammel  or  slip  being  thus  placed,  fix  brad-awls 
in  2  and  4  in  the  trammel ;  the  black  dots  represent  the  awl,  and  the  outer  circle  the 
handle  to  the  awl,  to  secure  the  strips  z  z ;  if  for  a  large  span,  tliey  may  be  screwed  on, 
and  if  for  a  smaller  span,  brads  or  small  naUs  will  answer.  To  describe  the  cu'cle  from 
1  at  the  centre  in  the  horizon,  round  to  C,  at  the  base  of  the  rib,  supj)ose  the  trammel  x, 
to  be  placed  perpendicular  on  1  4— apply  a  lead  jTtncil  to  the  hole  at  1  ;  then  move  the 
trammel  x  round  from  I  to  2,  minding  at  the  same  time  to  keep,  the  brad-awls  at  2  4, 
snug  to  the  strips  z.z,  and  one  half  of  the  rib  will  be  complete.  For  the  other  half, 
if  made  in  two  pieces,  take  the  half  already  obtained,  and  use  it  for  a  pattern  thereto ; 
but  if  required  in  one  entire  rib  or  piece,  the  two  strips  z  z,  should  be  reversed ;  then 
move  the  perpendicular  piece  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  centre  line,  and  the  horizontal 
piece  directly  under  Fig.  5 ;  for  to  describe  the  ellipsis,  proceed  as  in  the  above  already 
drawn,  and  the  circle  C  1  B,  will  be  produced. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  INNER  CIRCLE. 

First,  it  will  be  observed  that  the  circle  6  1  d,  is  a  trifle  to  the  right  of  the  centre,  which 
is  caused  by  the  plan  of  groins  being  of  an  oblong  square ;  (see  the  plan  of  the  rib  from 
C  to  B ;  and  the  greater  difference  will  be  understood  to  proceed  at  C,  from  its  sitting  on 
the  longest  side;  and  at  the  opposite  angle  atB,  from  its  sitting  on  the  shortest  side  of  the 
plan.)  "To  make  the  thing  easily  understood,  I  have  given  a  plan  of  the  butments  at 
Fig's.  6,  7,  and  8,  represented  by  the  letters  a  b  c — which  will  show  that  this  difference 
will  be  right — the  reverse  on  the  opposite  side.  This  inner  circle  is  drawn  the  same  way 
as  that  of  the  outer,  with  no  other  alterations  than  to  take  half  the  distance  b  d,  which 
is  at  3,  on  the  opposite  side  from  the  line  from  2,  and  set  it  on  5  on  the  trammel,  just 
above  4.  Now  proceed  the  same  way  to  describe  the  ellipsis  as  above  directed;  for  the 
outer  line  thus  far,  produces  one  side  of  the  angle  rib.*  For  the  opposite  side,  the  one 
obtained  may  answer  for  a  pattern. 

Note. — The  transverse  is  drawn  the  same  as  that  of  the  angle  rib,  and  is  generally 
represented  first,  which  is,  however,  a  matter  of  no  difference,  for  they  are  of  the  same 
height  in  the  centre  of  the  ceiling.  Further — if  the  ribs  are  drawn  and  cut  as  herein 
described,  and  executed  accordingly,  it  will  produce  a  perfect  plastered  groin  ceiling  in 
every  respect. 

PL.  26. 

As  a  roof  constitutes  one  of  the  principle  parts  of  an  edifice,  I  have  given  three  exam- 
ples in  this  plate,  on  which  I  shall  make  a  few  observations. 

First,  in  order  to  make  a  roof  uniformly  strong  and  light,  it  is  necessary  for  the  architect 
or  builder,  in  making  preparations  for  the  execvition,  to  lay  aside  all  suppositions,  and 
apply  mechanical  principles;  which  is  the  only  true  system  by  which  any  tiling  of  tlie 
like  nature  can  be  made  any  where  near  perfect,  or  even  to  answer  the  purpose  for  which 
it  was  designed.  For  it  is  often  the  case,  that  a  roof  built  on  a  continued  tie  beam,  has  a 
greater  number  of  pieces  than  is  actually  necessary,  and  therefore  contains  too  much 
material;  for,  generally,  a  roof  executed  on  a  continued  tie  beam,  there  is  no  very  con- 
siderable strength   required  of  any  piece,  except  the  tie  beam  itself;  and  the  strength 

*  This  angle  rib  is  made  of  two  plank  or  boards,  as  occasion  may  require,  and  when  cut  and  put  together  as  here 
represented,  will  form  a  complete  angle  rib.     (See  the  Fig's.  6,  7,  8".)     At  the  ceulie  it  will  be  square. 

11  • 


42  PRACTICAL   CARPENTRY. 

required  of  that  is  length-ways,  in  order  to  counteract  the  pressure  of  the  rafters  which 
are  annexed  to  it;  that  is,  when  are  there  no  ceiling  joists.  And  further,  the  strength 
of  a  principal  rafter  required  is  quite  inconsiderable,  when  on  the  construction  of  the 
design  represented  by  the  letter  A,  in  this  plate  ;  for  it  has  two  prominent  resting  places 
at  the  junction  of  c  and  d,  and  that  together  with  the  exertion  of  the  rafters  again'st  their 
butments  renders  them  very  strong,  although  they  may  be  quite  small.  And  it  may,  by 
examination,  be  ascertained,  that  tiie  braces  c  c  and  d  d  d  d,  have  but  little  to  do,  but  to 
counteract  tiie  falling  or  sagging  of  the  two  sides  of  the  roof;  for  it  is  evident  that  the 
falling  of  one  will  tend  to  raise  the  other :  therefore  all  the  strength  required  of  the  braces 
or  trusses,  is  sufficient  to  resist  the  weight  that  will  proceed  therefrom,  and  retain  their 
straight  line.  Consequently,  by  a  mechanical  examination,  and  with  a  judicious  arrange- 
ment ol'  the  timbers  in  a  roof,  the  contractor  may  save  the  expense  which  might  be  very 
imprudently  applied;  and  that,  many  times  the  walls  of  buildings  are  made  quite  thin, 
and  consequently  not  Yexy  strong,  and  are  not  well  calculated  to  bear  up  unnecessary 
weight. 

In  making  preparations  for  the  erection  of  a  roof  to  receive  a  pointed  or  Gothic  arch 
above  the  base  of  its  rafters,  requires  the  utmost  skill  in  the  architect  or  builder,  in  order 
to  avoid  settling  in  its  inclined  sides,  and  extension  of  the  rafters  at  their  bases. 

I  have  therefore  thought  proper  to  give  three  designs  on  roofs  in  this  plate,  hoping  they 
may  be  more  or  less  useful  to  workmen,  in  their  practical  pursuits.  I  do  not  claim  the 
examples  here  described  as  my  own  designs,  although  I  have  not  seen  any,  either  drawn 
or  executed,  like  the  one  representetl  by  the  letter  B.  I  do  not  claim  any  thing  in  A, 
unless  the  application  of  the  truss  running  directly  parallel,  and  under  the  principal 
rafter,  should  be  mine,  I  feel  satisfied  however,  that  either  of  the  two  upper  designs  are 
sufficient  to  span  ninety,  or  even  one  hundred  feet  withimt  segment,  or  extension  at  the 
base  of  the  rafter,  that  would  be  perceptible  to  the  eye. 

A  is  a  design  of  a  roof  with  a  continued  tie  beam,  showing  two  designs  at  the  eve,  one 
to  show  the  projection  required,  if  finished  with  a  projecting  eve-cornice,  and  on  the 
opposite  to  show  the  method  of  executing  a  copper,  lead,  or  stone  water  gutter  behind 
the  parapet  wall,  (see  n  the  gutter.)  This  design  is  also  calculated  for  a  cove  ceiling, 
consequently  the  tie  beam  is  not  required  as  large  as  otherwise. 

REFERENCES    TO    A. 

b  king  post,  7  by  IS  inches  below  the  trusses,  and  the  head  or  joggle,  6  by  22  ;  c  c 
trusses,  7  by  6  :  d  d  d  d  trusses,  7  l>y  6  ;  e  tie  beam,  7  by  16;  yy  iron  rods,  \  hy  \  ]  g  g 
walls,  22  by  6;  h  wall  to  show  the  method  of  framing  for  a  parapet  wall;  i  i  wall  plates, 
8  by  12;  j  strengthening  piece,  7  by  12,  to  the  tie  beam,  when  executed  for  a  parapet 
wall,  which  will  be  seen  necessary  directly  under  the  feet  of  the  rafters  ;  k  k  k  k  purline 
plates,  6  by  10,  which  should  extend  across  three  spaces,  and  will  consequently  join  on 
the  fourth  rafter,  whereby  they  will  or  can  break  joints,  and  give  the  strength  necessarily 
required  to  bind  the  principal  rafters  sufficiently  strong.  In  order  to  retain  the  strength 
of  the  purline  plates  and  rafters,  I  shall  advise  the  executor  not  to  cut  his  gain  entire 
across  the  rafter,  but  only  about  1  inch  in  each  side,  and  leave  the  middle  uncut,  which 
will  tend  not  to  weaken  the  rafters;  and  at  the  same  time,  the  purline  being  thus  cut  to 
fit  the  gain,  it  has  the  whole  plate  for  the  support  of  the  jack  or  common  rafters.  An 
introduction  of  braces  in  the  inclined  sides  of  a  roof,  in  my  opinion,  will  answer  their 
desired  purposes,  if  made  of  considerable  length,  and  aj)])lied  at  or  near  the  wall-plate, 
better  than  if  applied  in  any  other  situation.  The  method  hcrereccommended  is,  to  con- 
nect the  lower  end  of  the  liraces  to  the  wall  plate,  directly  at  and  against  the  tie  beam 
at  the  foot  of  the  rafter,  and  the  upper  end  to  the  rafters  in  the  usual  method  of  applying 


PRACTICAL   CARPENTRY.  43 

braces.  It  will  be  understood  that  the  braces  lie  under  the  jack-rafters.  The  braces, 
according  to  my  views,  should  be  locked  together.  If  a  dome,  or  any  thing  of  a  similar 
kind,  sliould  be  applied,  the  roof  will  require  tlie  more  strength. 

II  Principal  rafters,  6  by  18. 

m  jack  or  common  rafters,  3  by  7,  and  placed  two  feet  from  centre  to  centre. 

n  Eave  gutter  behind  the  parapet  wall,  of  lead,  copper,  or  stone. 

O  Scale  for  each  design. 

This  design  raises  one-fourth  of  its  whole  span.  The  iron  rods //might  be  dispensed 
with,  and  remain  sufficiently  stiff  and  strong. 

REFERENCES  TO  B. 

B  is  a  design  of  a  roof  to  accommodate  a  gothic  ceiling,  and  consequently  requires  a 
peculiar  sort  of  construction  and  distribution  of  its  timbers.  This  example  is  drawn  to 
a  70  feet  span,  but  would,  I  have  no  doubt,  retain  itself  with  the  utmost  perfection  on  90 
feet  span  ;  and  if  executing  it  myself,  I  would  not  hesitate  on  100  with  a  small  addition  to 
the  size  of  the  timber. 
•    cc  Principal  rafters,  7  by  20  inches. 

&  King-post,  below  the  joggle,  10  by  22  inches. 

King-post,  at  the  joggle,  10  by  31. 

d  d  Hammer,  or  lock  beams,  4  by  18. 

The  hammer  or  lock  beams  are  coupled,  (that  is,  one  on  both  sides  of  the  rafters  and 
king-post.)  These  beams  are  halved  together  at  the  king-post,  and  likewise  let  into  the 
king-post  1  1-2  on  each  side,  or  whatever  the  post  is  thicker  than  the  rafter,  (in  this 
the  rafter  is  7  inches,  and  the  post  10.) 

e  Collar  beam,  8  by  15. 

This  beam  is  made  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  rafter  and  two  hammer  or  lock  beams, 
in  order  to  make  the  iron  work  in  the  centre  all  in  one  mass  or  body.  The  beam  may 
be  made  in  two  ]>iece.s,  which  would  not  render  it  so  difficult  to  put  together :  it  also 
receives  a  strap  directly  over  it  at  the  principal  rafter. 

//  King-po.st  to  d  c  and  k,  4  by  8. 

g  g  Trusses,  or  rather  a  collar  beam  broken,  and  let  down  to  meet  the  trusses  h  h, 
which,  at  their  intersections,  form  a  resting  point  for  the  principal  rafters,  7  by  8. 

i  i  i  Purline  plates,  which  are  disposed  of  as  in  the  above  plate,  6  by  10. 

j  Sort  of  wooden  butment  for  the  rafters  and  truss  h.  This  butment  is  one  inch  thicker 
than  the  rafter.     The  iron  strap  is  let  in  a  half  inch  on  each  side,  8  by  20. 

k  k  Trusses  running  alongside  the  principal  rafter,  4  by  8. 

/  /  Wall  plates,  9  by  12. 

711  m  Walls. 

n  n  at  the  dotted  lines,  are  iron  straps  over  the  angle  of  the  butment. 

0  0  Water-gutters  behind  the  parapet  walls. 

p  p  Common,  or  jack-rafters,  3  by  7. 

This  roof  is  elevated  at  its  ridge  or  .summit,  the  sixth  and  one-half  of  its  whole  span  ; 
it  gives  room  in  its  interior  for  a  vaulted  ceiling,  sixteen  feet  nine  inches  above  its 
butments. 

Note. — The  dotted  lines  are  designed  to  represent  the  covering. 

REFERENCES  TO  C 

C  exhibits  the  design  of  a  roof  that  will  answer  for  from  40  to  55  feet  span,  without 
any  king-post;  but  has  an  iron  rod  of  1  inch  by  1  1-2,  which  would  not  cost  any  more, 
and  at  the  same  time  be  attended  with  much  less  trouble  in  putting  together  and  raising. 


44  PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 

This  design  may  be  executed  with  the  purlines  framed  into  the  principal  rafters,  and  the 
common  rafters  framed  into  the  purlines ;  or  otherwise,  may  be  framed  like  the  two  pre- 
ceding examples,  which  is  much  the  best  method. 

REFERENCKS  TO  THE  NAMES  AND  SIZE  OF  TIMBERS. 

a  Iron  rod,  1  by  1  1-2. 
h  b  Trusses,  7  by  7. 
c  Tie  beam,  7  by  11. 
d  d  Principal  rafters,  7  by  11. 

The  elevation  and  inclination  of  tlus  design  is  equal  to,  and  drawn  by  a  pediment  pitch, 
as  follows. 

TO  DRAW  A  PEDIMENT  PITCH. 

First,  set  one  point  of  the  compass  in  the  centre  o,  and  extend  the  other  point  out  Xap, 
either  way ;  then  let  the  point  in  o  stand,  and  move  the  point  p  round  down  to  q  ;  then 
let  the  point  q  stand,  and  extend  the  other  point  diagonally  up  to  p;  then  move^j  round 
to  r,  perpendicular  to  the  point  q,  and  the  summit  of  the  pediment  is  produced  as  re- 
quired;  then  draw  the  rafter  lines  r  j)  2^i  ^^^^  the  inclination  of  the  pediment  will  be 
complete. 

PL.  27. 

This  Plate  exhibits  an  elevation  of  a  trussed  partition — a  plan  and  elevation  of  a  trussed 
beam,  and  likewise  a  plan  and  section  of  the  common  beams  bridged,  acting  in  concert 
with  the  trussed  beam. 

REFERENCES  TO  THE  FIGURES  AND  LETTERS. 

Fig.  1,  Plan  of  the  floor  beams. 

Fig.  2,  A  section  of  Fig.  1. 

Fig.  3,  An  elevation  of  the  trussed  beam  and  partition. 

LETTERS  IN  FIG.  1. 

a  a  a  Straining  bolts  (see  a  a  a  in  C,  Fig.  3.) 

h  b  Bolts  to  gripe  the  trussed  beam. 

C  Plan  of  the  trussed  beam. 

d  d  d  Plan  of  the  common  beams. 

e  e  e  Plan  of  bridging  cap  to  connect  the  strength  of  the  common  beams  with  the 
trussed  beam  C. 

//,  &.C.  Trusses,  sometimes  called  bridging,  (see  /"/,  &c.  in  Fig.  2.) 

g  g,  &c.  Wedges  to  key  up  the  bridging  cap  e  e  e. 

Note — This  bridging  cap  is  a  piece  of"  1  ]-4  inch  oak  or  yellow  pine  plank  about  5 
inches  wide.  The  wedges,  when  sufliciently  drove,  secure  tliem  by  driving  a  nail  in  the 
thin  end.     The  bridging  cap  and  wedges  should  be  well  seasoned,  clear  of  knots,  and 


straight  grained 


LETTERS  IN  FIG.  2. 


C  Section  of  the  trussed  beam,  (see  the  plan  C  in  Fig.  1.) 
d  d  d  Section  of  the  common  beams, 
e  e  e  Bridging  cap,  (see  e  e  e  in  Fig.  1.) 


PRACTICAL   STAIR    RAILING.  45 

LETTERS    IN    FIG.    3. 

a  a  a  Straining  bolts,  (see  a  a  a  in  C  at  Fig.  1.) 

b  b  Griping  bolts,  (see  6  6  in  C  in  Fig.  1.) 

C  An  elevation  ot  the  trussed  beam,  showing  the  straining  bolts,  trusses  d  d,  and 
straining  beam  g  ;  and  likewise  the  griping  bolts  b  b. 

d  d  Iron  or  wooden  trusses — most  proper  of  iron. 

E  Floor  beam. 

ff  Trusses  to  support  E. 

g  Straining  beam  of  iron. 

Ji  h  Trusses  to  counteract  the  falling  in  of  the  beam  E. 

i  i  Brace  to  counteract  the  extension  of  the  trusses  h  h. 

Trussed  beams  are  frequently  necessary  in  great  spans  to  accommodate  the  bearing 
of  two  lengths  of  beams  or  joists,  but  more  frequently  to  support  partitions  that  may  be 
necessary  to  erect  over  the  ceiling  of  a  large  room  in  the  story  below  it,  and  to  support 
gallery  fronts,  «Sic.  without  columns,  or  any  thing  of  the  kind,  between  the  outer  hutments, 
in  order  to  secure  the  ceiling  from  falling  in  and  destroying  the  elegance  of  the  room — and 
further,  this  sort  of  partition  and  flooring  will  retain  for  ages  their  horizontal  and  vertical 
lines — if  their  hutments  are  made  secure — and  will  thereby  experience  no  change  in  the 
internal  part  of  the  edifice,  which  is  a  highly  important  consideration,  particularly  in  good 
buildings. 

REMARKS    ON    THE    GENERAL    BEARING    OF    FIG.    3. 

First,  It  will  be  seen  that  the  partition  is  connected  by  two  horizontal  beams,  and  two 
perpendicular  posts. 

2d,  That  the  two  trusses// have  their  bearing  on  the  hutments. 

3d,  That  the  beam  E  has  two  prominent  resting  places  on  the  trusses/  /J  hence  it  is 
evident  that  if  E  tends  to  fall,  h  h  will  counteract  every  possible  exertion  of  that  kind — 
and  it  is  likewise  evident,  that  h  h  cannot  extend  their  span  ;  for,  in  the  attempt,  they 
will  meet  i  ^,  Avhich  is  prepared  to  counteract  it.  Thus  it  is  evident,  that  the  partition 
will  support  itself,  and  leave  but  little  for  the  beam  to  do  but  support  its  own  weight,  &c. 

The  general  bearing  of  Fig.  2,  will  be  seen  to  be  very  nearly  the  same  as  a  straight  or  . 
common  piece  of  beam — for,  as  they  are  connected  by  the  bridging  cap  e  e  e,  they  cannot 
separate;  therefore,  it  is  reasonable,  if  the  bridging  pieces///  &c.  are  pi'operly  placed 
and  secured,  that  one  beam  cannot  go  down  without  the  whole  act  in  concert.  The 
bridgings  are  generally  thrown  in  of  about  1  1-2  by  3  or  4  inches,  and  secured  at  the  top 
and  bottom  with  one  or  two  nails,  as  may  be  found  necessary  by  the  executor. 

The  bridgings  or  trusses  ///,  &c.,  may  be  placed  adjoining  each  other,  or  a  small 
distance  apart  as  in  Fig.  1,  at  the  letters///,  &c. 

Note — This  partition  is  calculateti  to  accommodate  three  doors — whereas,  if  other 
locations  of  doors  should  be  necessary,  it  might  require  a  different  set  of  trusses,  and 
these  very  differently  arranged. 

PL.  28. 

This  Plate  is  a  practical  drawing  for  the  carriages  of  a  geometrical  stair,  raisuig  over 
six  winding  steps,  explained  in  two  different  ways  :  the  first,  by  framing  bearers  of  plank 
into  plank  risers  ;  the  latter,  by  cutting  bearers  out  of  plank  to  support  three  steps,  rising 
from  the  centre  and  middle  riser  to  the  last  riser  of  the  winders,  in  an  oblique  direction, 
(that  is,  the  front  and  middle  bearers) — the  one  adjoining  the  wall,  passes  under  only 
wo  steps.  12 


46  PRACTICAL   STAIR    RAILING. 

REFERENCES    TO    THE   FIGURES. 

Fig.  1,  Plan  of  the  stairs,  and  framing  to  support  the  steps  and  risers  over  the  circular 
or  winders. 

Fig.  2,  Elevation  of  a  part  of  the  front  string,  in  the  straight  part  joining  unto  the 
winders :  likewise  the  risers,  brackets  thrown  in  the  angles  of  the  bearers  and  risers,  and 
the  screw  (a  bedtsead  screw)  to  connect  the  straight  string  to  the  winders. 

Fig.  3,  An  elevation  of  the  middle  carriage  or  horse,  for  three  steps. 

Fig.  4,  Plan  of  the  carriage  or  horse,  for  two  steps. 

Fig.  5,  Plan  of  the  middle  horse. 

e;xplanation  to  the  letters. 

a  a  a  a  Carriages. 

b  b  Front  string. 

e  e  e  e  e  e  Bearers,  framed  into  c  c,  &c.  (see  the  dotted  tenons  on  c  c,  &c.  in  Fig.  2.) 

c  c  c  Plank  risers  for  the  carriage  way,  (place  c  c  c  above  e  e  e.) 

d  d  d  d  d  d  Common  risers. 

ffffff  Staves  for  the  front  string,  front  worked  to  the  circle,  and  finished  with  a 
rabbit  or  face  of  about  1  1-2  inch,  with  1-2  inch  worked  in  front,  and  returned  on  the 
under  side.  On  the  back  side  they  are  designed  to  fit  against  the  brackets  2^  q  r  s,  and 
ths  risers  c  c  c,  and  bearers  e.  e,  in  Fig.  2. 

g  Bracket  line. 

h  h  Bearers. 

i  i  i  i  Studs  ur  joists. 

A  B  C  D  At  tlif  angles  of  the  dotted  lines  round  Fig.  5,  represent  the  width  and 
length  of  the  plank  required  to  cut  a  horse  for  three  steps. 

EFGHIJKL  represent  the  steps  and  risers  of  Fig.  5,  which  the  student  will 
observe  are  drawn  direct  from  the  intersection  of  the  risers  and  Fig.  5. 

E  F  G  H  I  J  represent  the  steps  and  risers  to  Fig.  4. 

abc  din.  Fig.  4,  represent  the  plan  of  the  bearer. 

Note. — The  method  of  cutting  the  bearers  after  this  method,  is  of  at  least  one-half  less 
expense  than  to  frame  after  the  manner  of  Fig.  2,  and  in  short  steps,  would  answer 
equally  as  well. 

letters  in  fig.  2. 

g  h  ij  k  /  «t  Is  a  part  of  the  front  string,  joining  unto  the  winders. 

c  c  c  Plank  risers. 

d  d  d  Common  risers. 

e  e  e  Bearers  tenoned  into  the  plank  risers,  (see  the  dotted  lines.) 

f  f  f  Ends  of  the  steps,, 

m  n  0  p  An  elevation  of  the  bracket,  fitted  in  the  angle  of  c  and  e,  directly  behind  the 
stave  or  front  string  fff,  &c.  in  Fig.  1 .  These  staves  are  fitted  all  the  way  up,  and 
screwed  fast  on  the  back  side — and  after  thus  fitted,  they  are  taken  down,  and  well  glued, 
refitted  and  secured  to  their  former  placeSj  which  will  render  the  front  of  the  stairs  very 
strong.  The  brackets  under  the  middle  and  back  bearers  are  of  the  same  height  at  the 
joints  as  those  of  the  front.  Those  brackets  answer  also  for  lathing  joists  under  the 
stairway. 

w  A  bedstead  screw  let  through  the  riser  into  the  string. 


PRACTICAL    STAIR    RAILING.  47 

PL.  27. 

lu  this  Plate  are  two  scrolls  described  by  the  same  rules  and  centres,  but  have  differ- 
ent proportions. 

I  have  given  these  two  examples  with  the  same  rule,  in  order  to  show  that  a  scroll  or 
spiral  fret  may  be  contracted  by  making  the  centres  smaller,  and  extended  by  making 
them  larger. 

REFERENCES  TO  THE  FIg's.   12  3  4  5  AND  6. 

Fig.  1,  A  scroll  of  one  revolution  and  three  quarters,  drawn  by  six  centres  got  by 
dividing  a  geometrical  square  into  36  equal  parts. 

Fig.  2,  An  elevation  of  the  wedges  to  strain  the  veneer  round  the  block  under  the 
curtail  step. 

Fig.  3,  A  part  of  the  riser  and  veneer,  (see  riser  and  veneer  in  Fig.  1.) 

Fig.  4.  Plan  of  a  revolution,  and  a  half  scroll. 

Fig.  5,  Pitch  board. 

Fig.  6,  Face  mould. 

NoT&. — Iq  Fig.  1,  I  have  likewise  described  the  block  and  curtail  step,  which  will  be 
explained. 

TO    DRAW   THE   SCROLL   IN   FIG.    1. 

First,  draw  a  circle,  (generally  called  the  eye,)  3  1-4  or  3  1-2  inches,  (in  this  it  is 
3  1-4;)  then  draw  a  geometrical  square  equal  to  one  half  of  the  eye — divide  the  geome- 
trical square  into  36  equal  parts  or  si.uares,  and  at  the  same  time  extend  one  of  those 
parts  out  to  6;  now  draw  the  spiral  liues — set  one  point  of  the  compass  on  1,  one  square 
from  the  centre  o,  and  extend  the  other  p  liat  down  to  o  on  the  edge  of  the  eye — let  1 
stand,  move  o  round  to  I ;  let  the  outer  1  stand,  extend  the  inner  1  out  two  squares  to 
2 ;  let  2  stand,  move  1  round  to  2 :  let  the  outer  2  stand,  move  the  inner  2  down  to  3, 
move  2  round  to  3 ;  let  the  outer  3  stand,  move  the  inner  3  out  to  4  ;  let  4  stand,  move  3 
round  to  4;  let  the  outer  4  stand,  move  4  out  to  5;  let  5  stand,  move  4  round  to  5;  let 
the  outer  5  stand,  move  inner  5  out  to  6 ;  let  6  stand,  and  move  5  round  to  6,  and  the 
convex  side  of  the  scroll  will  be  complete.  To  describe  the  inner  or  concave  side,  follow 
the  same  figures  back — that  is,  alter  setting  the  width  of  the  rail  in  at  6  6. 

TO  DRAW  THE  BLOCK  AND  VENEER  FOR  THE  CURTAIL  STEP. 

First,  set  back  from  the  front  of  the  rail  at  b,  Fig.  1,  to  I,  one  half  of  the  projection 
of  the  nosing,  which  will  be  the  front  line  of  the  bracket  or  front  string ;  then  draw  the 
line  I  J  M  N  P,  by  following  the  same  centres  of  the  rail,  and  the  concave  side  of  the 
block  will  be  produced.  For  the  veneer  and  convex  side  of  the  block,  set  one  point  of 
the  compass  in  5,  and  extend  the  other  point  out  to  K ;  let  5  stand,  move  K  round  to  L, 
and  so  round  until  the  line  or  veneer  meets  the  letter  A — which  is  the  end  of  the  vene  er 
let  into  the  block  from  P  to  A,  by  running  in  the  cut  of  a  pannel  saw. 

TO-FORM  THE  BLOCK,  AND  WORK  IT  OUT. 

In  order  to  secure  the  block  from  shrinking  and  breaking  apart,  it  is  necessary  to  glue 
it  up  into  about  five  thicknesses,  (see  Fig.  2,  the  riser.*)  These  thicknesses  must  be 
equal  in  width  to  the  line  L  20,  (that  is,  the  ones  that  lay  across  the  step,)  and  those 
that  run  lengthways  the  step,  equal  in  width  to  the  line  C  21.     To  prepare  the  block  for 

*  And  wedges  to  strain  the  yeneer. 


48  PRACTICAL    STAIR    RAILING. 

the  reception  of  the  front  string  and  bracket,  cut  the  gain  I  H  D,  noticing  that  the  junc- 
tion of  the  string  and  block  is  at  I ;  the  letter  6  is  the  bracket,  and  c  rf  e  H  a  part  of  the 
front  string;  from  the  bracket,  it  will  be  understood  that  the  block  is  made  sufficiently 
smooth  round  to  P,  not  to  require  any  veneer.  To  get  the  length  of  the  veneer,  take  a 
small  chord  or  twine,  and  apply  one  end  at  the  end  of  the  veneer  at  the  letter  A — then 
encircle  the  block  from  A  rouiid  by  L  K  to  G,  which  will  be  the  length  of  the  veneer 
required;  then  calculate  whatever  thickness  for  the  wedge  may  be  thought  proper;  (in 
this  it  is  one  half  of  an  inch) — from  that  to  one  inch  is  proper.  It  will  be  understood 
at  the  same  time  from  Fig.  3,  that  the  lower  riser  must  be  in  the  same  piece  with  the 
veneer. 

TO  PREPARE  THE  RISER  AND  VENEER. 

First,  get  the  length  as  above  described,  tlien  guage  the  veneer  at  B  about  l-8th  of  an 
inch  thick;  then  take  a  rip  saw  and  cut  the  veneer  from  A  to  B,  plane  it  up  without  the 
least  variation  that  can  be  seen,  crossways,  giving  it  a  gradual  diminish  from  B  to  A,  so 
that  A  may  enter  the  cut  of  a  pannel  saw  ;  then  prepai'e  a  quantity  of  hot  water  and  put 
the  veneer  into  it,  and  there  let  it  remain  until  it  becomes  as  soft  as  a  piece  of  leather. 
Prior  to  this,  take  a  sizing  of  glue  "and  size  the  block,  and  let  it  get  dry  before  the  appli- 
cation of  the  veneer — and  at  the  application  give  it  another  good  coat  of  well-prepared 
glue.  Then  take  it  and  place  the  end  perfectly  square  into  the  saw  cut  at  A,  and  gradu- 
ally bend  it  round  the  block,  until  it  will  admit  of  the  riser's  fitting  in  the  block  at  E, 
minding  to  have  it  well  glued  at  the  same  time ;  then  ta^e  the  wedges  at  Fig.  2,  and 
drive  one  from  the  upper  side  and  one  from  the  under  side,  and  the  wedges  being 
properly  drove,  will  strain  the  riser  smooth  and  snug  to  the  block.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  have  the  veneer  lay  snug  to  the  block  from  K  to  B,  which  may  be  effected  by  placing 
the  block  in  some  proper  place  and  applying  a  flat  piece  across  it,  and  secure  it  by  a 
weight  or  some  other  means,  in  which  place  it  should  remain  until  it  becomes  perfectly 
dry. 

TO  DRAW  THE  CURTAIL  STEP. 

In  Fig.  1  the  dotted  lines  represented  by  the  letters  k  I  h  n,  &c.  is  the  outer  line  of  the 
nosing  of  the  curtail  step,  and  is  drawn  by  the  same  centres  of  the  rail. 

The  dotted  line  g  g  at  the  right  hand,  is  the  width  of  the  tread  of  the  step  from  the 
first  rise  to  the  second ;  5  12  is  likewise  the  width  of  the  step  ;  h  h,  nosing  of  the  second 
step  ;  g  i,  second  rise  ;  j  Ik  is  the  return  of  the  nosing  round  the  bracket.  In  this  plan, 
I  have  extended  the  nosing  over  the  bracket,  equal  to  the  size  of  the  banister,  which  is 
not  practised  by  all  stair  builders,  though  to  me  it  appears  most  mechanical. 

TO   DRAW    THE    SCROLL    FIG.   4. 

Draw  the  eye  or  circle  3  1-4  or  3  1-2  inclies,  then  draw  a  geometrical  square  in  the 
centre,  equal  to  one-third  the  diameter  of  the  eye,  and  for  the  other  parts,  proceed  pre- 
cisely as  in  Fig.  1. 

TO    DRAW    THE    FACE    MOULD    FIG.    6. 

Take  the  pitch  board  Fig.  5,  and  apply  the  baseline  5  12  to  the  convex  side  of  tlie 
rail  or  scroll ;  then  draw  the  ordinate  lines  6,  5,  6,  6 — 7,  7,  8,  7 — 5,  9,  10,  5,  &c.  perpen- 
dicular to  the  base  or  under  edge  of  the  pitch  board  5  12,  and  extend  them  up  to  the 
hypothenuse  or  rake  line  5  13,  to  intersect  the  figures  6,  7,  5,  &c.  then  take  the  distance 
6,  6,  G,  from  the  line  5,  12  across  the  eye  of  the  scroll  in  the  point  of  the  compass,  and 


PRACTICAL   STAIR    RAILING.  49 

transfer  them  to  6,  6,  6,  in  Fig.  6,  (noticing  that  the  ordinates  in  6  are  drawn  at  right 
angles  to  the  rake  of  the  pitch-board.)  Proceed  the  same  way  with  7,  5,  20,  21,  &c.  and 
then  trace  round  from  6,6,  to  5,5,  and  the  size  and  shape  of  the  face  mould  will  be  pro- 
duced. Now  to  understand  the  practical  position  of  the  face  mould,  Fig.  6,  suppose  the 
pitch-board,  Fig.  5,  to  stand  on  the  line  5  12  across  the  eye — then  it  will  be  understood 
that  the  line  5  13  of  the  pitch-board  is  the  rake  of  the  stairs.  Now,  if  the  student  ob- 
serves with  attention  the  pitch-board  standing  as  above  placed  on  the  line  5  12  across 
the  scroll,  he  uill  see  that  the  face  mould.  Fig.  6,  will  range  precisely  over  the  corres- 
ponding one  in  the  plan  of  the  scroll.  Fig.  4. 

Note. — The  letters  fff,  &c.  Fig.  1,  represent  the  banisters. 

PL.  30. 

Explains  a  practical  method  for  obtaining  the  thickness  of  stuff*  required  to  pass  over 
the  plan  D,  or  one  half  of  A,  in  Plate  VI,  and  also  the  shank  of  the  scroll,  Fig.  4,  in 
Plate  XXIX. 

METHOD  FOR  OBTAINING  THE  THICKNESS  OF  STUFF  FOR  HAND-RAILING. 
REFERENCES  TO  THE  FIGURES. 

Fig.  1,  Falling-mould,  over  the  stretchout  of  Fig.  3,  (see  the  letters  ft6cl234567 
on  the  line  A  B,)  under  Fig.  1,  which  are  the  same  as  those  on  the  convex  of  Fig.  3,  and 
also  of  the  same  length. 

Fig.  2.  The  thickness  of  stuff  required  for  the  rail: 

Fig.  3,  Plan  of  the  rail  D  or  A  in  Plate  VI. 

Fig.  4,  Shank  of  the  scroll,  Fig.  4,  Plate  XXIX. 

Fig.  5,  Plan  of  the  shank  of  Fig.  4,  Plate  XXIX,  from  5  5,  to  6  6. 

Fig.  6,  Stretchout  of  the  falling-mould,  Fig.  4,  in  Plate  XXX. 

TO  DRAW  OR  OBTAIN  THE  THICKNESS  OF  STUFF. 

Place  the  stretchout  of  Fig.  3,  on  the  line  A  B,  from  a  to  7,  then  place  the  falling- 
mould  Fig.  1,  in  its  practical  position,  meaning  on  the  rake  of  the  stairs;  divide  a  7  into 
the  same  number  and  distances  of  the  convex  line  of  Fig.  3  from  a  b  c  round  to  7,  then 
raise  perpendiculars  from  a6cl234567to  cross  the  falling  mould.  Fig.  1,  draw  lines 
parallel  to  A  B  from  112  2  3  3,  &c.  to  cross  Fig.  2,  then  raise  lines  from  the  same 
figures  on  both  sides  of  the  plan  Fig.  3,  to  cross  Fig.  2,  and  where  they  cross,the  corres- 
ponding lines  at  1  2  3  4,  &c.  will  be  the  extremity  and  shape  of  the  rail  when  in  its 
square  shape,  ready  for  moulding  or  rounding. 


TO  DRAW  FIG.  4,  THE  SHANK  OP  THE  SCROLL  IN  PLATE  XXIX. 

Lay  the  plan  of  Fig.  4,  from  tlie  joint  at  5  5  round  to  6  6  in  Plate  XXIX,  on  Fig.  5, 
in  this  Plate,  then  divide  the  convex  side  of  the  rail  into  5  12  3  4,  &c.  equal  parts,  and 
tlien  draw  lines  across  the  rail  to  the  centre  6,  which  will  also  divide  the  concave  side 
into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts ;  then  take  the  falling-mould,  Fig.  6,  the  same  as 
that  of  Fig.  4,  in  Plate  XXX,  and  take  the  stretchout  of  Fig.  5,  from  5  round  by  1  2  3  4 
5  6  7  6,  (6  being  the  termination  of  the  scroll,)  8  9  10  11,  (11  is  5-8  below  the  second 

*  In  this  plate,  I  have  given  the  twist,  although  it  is  not  necessary ;  for  ■when  the  extremities  and  backs  are  ob- 
tained, the  thickness  of  the  stufi  will  be  produced:  for  instance,  see  o  c  1  5  7  6  are  the  extremities,  and  the  two 
parallel  lines  contain  the  wood  necessary,  which  is  2  and  3-4  thick.     The  rail  is  1  3-4  by  2  1-4. 

13 


50  PRACTICAL    STAIR    RAILING. 

riser,)  at  which  I  have  made  the  joint.  This  however,  may  always  be  discretionate  with 
the  executor.  The  falling-mould  thus  placed,  and  divided  into  the  same  number  of  equal 
parts  and  distances  from  the  two  heavy  lines  5  and  6,  it  will  be  understood  the  same  will 
apply  and  bind  round  the  shank  Fig.  4  when  applied  over  Fig.  5  in  its  practical  position, 
(meaning  tlie  rake  or  inclination  of  the  stairs.)  To  draw  the  twist,  and  obtain  the  thick- 
ness of  stuff  for  Fig.  4,  raise  perpendicular  lines  through  the  line  A  B,  from  the  figures 
51234567  6,  &c.  in  the  convex  and  concave  sides  of  Fig.  5  up  through  the  shank 
Fig.  4,  to  intersect  the  same  and  corresponding  figures ;  then  take  the  distances  5  5  5 
from  Fig.  6,  and  transfer  them  to  5  5  5  on  the  outside  of  the  plan  Fig.  5,  and  the  shanks 
Fig.  4,  and  so  on*  1  1,  2  2,  3  3,  4  4,  5  5,  6  6,  7  7,  6  6,  8  8,  9  9,  10  10,  and  0  0,  and  the 
upper  edge  of  the  convex  side  of  the  shank  will  be  at  the  upper  line  of  figures.  To 
determine  the  upper  and  under  edge  of  the  concave  side  of  the  rail,  take  the  figures  Fl^l , 
2  2  2,  3  3  3,  4  4  4,  5  5  5,  6  6  6,  7  7  7,  6  6  6,  &c.  and  they  will  produce  a  perspective 
view  of  the  twist  of  the  part  of  the  rail  contained  in  the  shank  of  the  scroll.  C  represents 
a  section  of  tlie  rail  at  the  joint,  with  a  screw  nut  and  washer  practically :  D  at  the  upper 
end  and  at  the  joint,  represents  the  bolt  which  connects  the  shank  and  straight  part  of  the 
rail.  The  two  parallel  lines  in  Fig.  4,  represent  the  thickness  of  stuff  requisite,  with  the 
most  perfect  workmanship  ;  for  it  will  be  perceived  tliat  those  dotted  lines  will  produce 
a  lack  of  wood  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  convex  side,  and  under  of  the  concave  ;  but  as 
above  observed,  with  precise  workmanship  it  will  make  a  perfect  rail,  and  require  only 

2  1-2  inches  thick  of  stuff;  whereas,  if  made  to  work  square  all  round,  it  would  require 

3  inches,  which  is  not  only  an  additional  expense,  but  sometimes  difficult  to  obtain  a 
piece  of  that  thickness,  especially  well  seasoned. 

Note. — All  the  above  drawing  is  not  necessary  to  obtain  the  thickness  of  stuff;  for 
the  lower  angle  at  5  in  Fig.  4,  and  at  4  the  highest  extremity  on  the  back  will  produce 
the  thickness,  and  the  four  angles  in  Fig.  2,  it  may  plainly  be  seen,  will  produce  the  same. 

PL.  31. 

As  stairs  of  six  to  eight  inch  openings,  are  the  most  in  use  of  any  other  kind,  there 
are  frequently  instances  of  many  being  obliged  to  execute  them,  who  are  but  little  expe- 
rienced in  stair-building ;  consequently,  I  have  thought  proper  to  give  the  most  difficult 
parts  engaged  therein,  in  the  following  practical  manner. 

REFERENCES  TO  THE  FIGURES. 

Fig  A,  Plan  of  the  rail,  front  string  and  nosing :  the  outer  dotted  line  represents  the 
front  line  of  the  foot  string;  (that  is,  the  one  farthest  from  the  centre  o,  commencing  at 
1,  and  terminating  at  2:)  the  inner  dotted  line  represents  the  front  line  of  the  nosing  on 
the  platform. 

Fig.  B,  Plan  of  the  cylinder  put  up  in  staves,  glued  and  screwed  together. 

Fig.  C,  The  elevation  and  stretchout  of  the  circular  part  of  the  front  string  passing 
over  the  dotted  line  1  2,  in  Fig.  A  with  a  part  of  the  last  step  of  the  first  flight,  and  part 
of  the  first  of  the  short  flight  going  off  the  platform  and  landing  on  the  floor. 

Fig.  D,  Falling-movdd  for  the  concave  side  of  the  rail,  passing  over  the  line  5  7,  in 
Fig.  A. 

Fig.  E,  Convex  falling  mould,  passing  over  the  outer  line  6  11,  in  the  plan  Fig.  A. 

*  The  above  distances  are  taken  from  the  line  A  B,  at  Pig.  6,  to  the  upper  side  of  the  same,  which  is  the  falling- 
mould,  and  those  that  determine  the  other  two  lines  will  be  taken  from  the  line  A  B,  and  the  under  and  upper  side 
of  the  falling-mould. 


PRACTICAL    STAIR    RAILING.  51 

EXPLANATIONS    TO    FIGURES    A,  B,  C,  D,  AND    E. 

Fig.  A,  Is  the  plan  of  a  rail  corresponding  precisely  with  the  plan,  letter  A,  in  Plate 
VI,  across  the  centre  O,  from  6  to  11 ;  the  tangent  line  13  14,  is  the  same  as  13  14,  in 
Plate  VI,  and  is  got  by  the  same  process.  The  dotted  line  15  16,  a  tangent  to  the  cir- 
cular doited  line,  (which  is  the  first  string,)  is  the  stretch  out  of  the  circular  part  of  the 
siring;  tlie  line  17  18,  is  the  stretchout  of  the  concave  side  of  the  rail. 

TO    DRAW    FIG.    B,    A    PLAN    OF  THE    STAIRS    AND    CYLINDER. 

First,  take  the  opening  of  the  cylinder  and  draw  it  at  any  convenient  place,  say  ai 
Fig.  B ;  then  determine  the  location  of  the  joint  of  the  straight  and  circular  part  of  the 
string,*  say  at  a  h ;  then  take  any  number  of  staves,  (in  this  design  I  have  given  only 
three,  of  which  one  is  omitted  for  want  of  room,)  and  draw  lines  from.,  the  centre  O, 
through  the  intersection  of  the  two  staves  at  c  f  and  e  d,  which  will  give  the  bevel  for 
working  the  staves.  For  instance,  take  a  bevel  and  apply  the  stock  to  the  dotted  line 
c  6  of  the  stave  that  is  connected  with  the  straight  string,  and  the  blade,  on  the  bevel 
line  cf;  then  plane  up  the  stave  to  fit  that  bevel,  and  so  also  d  cf,  and  the  two  staves 
will  stand  precisely  over  the  lines  herein  represented  by  the  letters  b  c,  de,  f  and  g.  To 
work  out  the  circle,  together  Avith  the  straight  part  annexed  thereto,  first  take  a  thin 
piece  of  board,  and  make  its  shape  precisely  the  same  as  the  lines  b  a,  3,  c  f,  and^; 
then  take  the  pattern  just  described,  and  apply  it  to  the  end  of  the  stave,  and  mark 
round,  which  will  produce  the  scribes  necessary  for  working  the  stave.  Proceed  the 
same  way  with  the  centre  stave,  which  is  described  by  the  letters  c  d  §  and  /. 

TO    GLUE  UP  THE  STAVES  IN  THE  BEST  WAY  TO  AVOID  A  VARIATION  BY  SLIPPING  OUT  OF  PLACE. 

First,  cut  a  place  in  the  stave  at  i,  for  the  reception  of  a  screw,  then  take  the  screw  k, 
and  screw  the  two  staves  together  in  order  to  make  them  permanent :  two  screws  will 
be  necessary.  By  thus  proceeding,  the  cylinder  may  be  nearly  completed  before  glued 
up.  The  workman  will  also  find  a  convenience  in  working  the  rabbit  or  faciaj,  and  bead; 
for  he  may  work  from  both  ways :  whereas,  if  the  whole  were  glued  up,  he  would  find, 
difficulty,  particularly  in  those  small  openings. 

TO    CUT    THE    JOINT,    AND    SCREW    THE    CYLINDER    TO    THE    STRAIGHT    STRING. 

First,  set  a  guage  from  the  line  J  b  across  to  the  line  h  i,  then  guage  the  line  h  i,  then 
saw  the  line  h  i  through  and  through  down  to  h,  then  cut  the  bevel  joint  from  a  into  h  ; 
then  the  stave  being  cut,  the  same  shape  will  fit  at  a  h  and  i;  the  stave  is  thus  fitted  : 
now  drive  the  screws  n  n,  and  they  being  inclined  as  described  in  the  plan,  will  bring 
the  joint  a  h  to  wood  and  wood.  As  seasoned  stuff  is  important  in  cylinders,  I  have 
made  the  staves  in  this  example  only  2  1-4  thick,  consequently,  it  causes  a  lack  of  wood 
between  /and  i:  To  remedy  that,  the  triangular/  i  P  might  be  left  on  the  straight 
string :  it  is  a  matter  of  no  great  consequence  whether  on  or  omitted. 

Note. — After  the  facise  and  bead  are  completed,  then  unscrew  the  joints,  and  put  on 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  glue ;  then  refit  them,  and  drive  the  screws  as  before,  and  the 
joints  will  be  permanent  and  regular.  The  letter  q  represents  the  back  line  of  the  bead . 
— r,  the  front  side  of  the  bead  and  facise,  and  s,  the  front  of  the  upper  facise. 

TO  DRAW  THE  ELEVATION  AND  STRETCHOUT  OF  FIG.  C. 

First,  take  the  dotted  stretchout  15  16  at  the  plan  Fig.  A,  and  raise  them  perpendicular 

*  I  have  located  this  2  and  o-8ths  of  an  iach  from  the  circle,  which  renders  it  easier  to  make  the  inlerseetions  of. 
the  straight  and  circular  parts  perfect,,  or  as  near  so  as  possible. 


52  PRACTICAL   STAIR    RAILING. 

up  to  15  16  on  the  under  edge  of  the  nosing  of  the  platform  ;  then  set  up  from  16  to  19 
the  height  of  a  riser ;  then  set  down  from  15  to  I  the  height  of  a  riser.  This  produces 
thejstretchout  of  the  cylinder,  and  at  the  same  time  represents  a  part  of  two  common 
steps.  The  figures  3  and  4,  at  the  extremities  of  the  nosing,  are  just  equal  to  the  stretch- 
out of  the  dotted  line  3  4  in  tlie  plan  Fig.  A,  representing  the  nosing  line. 

TO  GET  THE  LENGTH  OP  THE  STAVES. 

First,  find  the  stretchout  of  the  staves  round  from  b  a3  c  and  d,  and  apply  them  to  the 
dotted  lines  on  the  under  side  of  the  falling-mould  or  under  side  of  the  elevation  of  the 
front  string  at  1  2  3  4  5  6  ;  then  commence  at  1,  and  raise  a  perpendicular  line  from  1  up 
to  I,  which  will  be  the  length  ;  the  width  will  be  from  1  to  2  on  the  horizontal  dotted 
line':  for  the  middle  stave,  take  the  perpendicular  line  3  2  for  the  length,  and  the  hori- 
zontal dotted  line  3  4  for  the  width  :  a  a  are  the  joints  of  the  cylinder  to  the  straight 
string,— 6  b  are  the  joints  in  the  rabbit  or  faci*,  caused  by  cutting  a  bevel  (see  the  joint 
in  the  plan  of  cylinder)  at  a  h,  and  it  will  be  seen  at  the  bevel  joint,  by  its  passing  from 
the  letter  h  out  to  a,  it  makes  the  difference  of  the  two  dotted  lines  in  crossing  the  pro- 
jection of  the  rabbit  of  the  facia-,  which  is  represented  by  the  break  in  the  two  lines  or 
joints  of  the  cylinder  marked  a  b,  to  the  string  in  the  elevation  at  the  intersections  of  the 
straight  and  circular  parts.  The  dotted  lines  1  1  and  6  6,  at  the  upper  and  lower  ends, 
represent  the  line  b  g  in  Fig.  B. 

jVoTE.— Before  I  proceed  any  farther,  it  will  be  proper  to  mention  the  peculiarity  of  a 
winding  or  circular  rail  passing  over  any  number  of  elevated  steps. 

First,  It  is  known  by  practical  demonstration,  that  a  hand-rail  raising  and  winding 
over  any  number  of  steps,  terminating  in  a  circular  cylinder,  that  neither  two  of  the  front 
and  back  edges  will  be  parallel  to  each  other  ;  consequently  it  is  evident  that  the  cuts  in 
the  convex  and  concave  falling-mould  will  not  be  parallel  to  each  other  ;  if  both  are  cut 
square  to  the  rake  of  the  falling-moulds,  (see  Fig's.  D  and  E  placed  on  their  stretchouts) 
that  they  do  not  run  parallel  over  the  stretchout  part,  but  at  the  same  time  run  parallel 
down  at  s  s  and  up  at  ?•  r,  and  is  also  the  same  distance  apart  at  s  s  that  it  is  at  r  r,  and 
so  also  is  the  underside  of  the  falling-mould  to  the  front  string.  Fig.  C.  It  will  likewise 
be  observed  that  the  four  lines  across  the  two  falling-moulds  at  each  end  of  Fig's.  D  and 
E,  are  square  to  the  hypothenuse,  or  rake-line  of  the  pitch-boards,  and  parallel  to  each 
other;  but  at  the  same  time,  the  cuts  at  the  centre  of  the  stretchouts  are  not  parallel 
when  cut  square  to  the  rake  or  hypothenuse  line.  Therefore,  it  is  a  duty  that  devolves 
on  me,  tlu-ough  the  nature  of  my  proposals  for  this  work,  to  explain  satisfactorily  the 
mysterious  parts  connected  with  the  various  problems  or  examples  that  I  include  in  this 
work.  The  above  references  and  notices  are  inserted  for  the  purpose  of  placing  in  view 
the  proper  object  that  will  be  most  likely  to  lead  the  student  to  a  more  direct  understand- 
ing of  them;  and  at  the  same  time  it  will  be  proper  to  direct  the  student  to  Plate  XXXIV, 
for  the  application  of  the  moulds  and  pitch-boards  or  bevels,*  more  particularly  than  any 
succeeding  Plate ;  for  if  I  should  explain  the  application  of  the  moulds  and  pitch  bevels 
to  all  the  examples  that  will  be  included  in  this  work,  I  should  be  obliged  to  omit  exam- 
ples of  equal  importance ;  and  as  Plates  VI  and  VII  treat  on  the  applications  in  the  best 
practical  manner,  it  would  be  taxing  the  patrons  of  the  work  with  money  and  studies, 
which  would  be  perfectly  useless  to  them. 

*  Noticing  that  the  pitch-board  of  tlie  front  «;tring  in  a  stair  with  winding  steps,  will  not  answer  for  the  rake  and 
plumb  cuts  or  lines,  to  neither  side  of  the  rail  which  may  be  seen  by  the  variation  of  the  two  falling  moulds  and  front 
string  in  this  Plate,  but  a  pitch-board  equal  to  the  inside  or  outside  of  the  rail  will  answer  for  the  same. 


PRACTICAL    STAIR    RAILING.  53 

TO  DRAW  THE  CUTS  OF  THE  CONCAVE  AND  CONVEX  SIDE  OF  THE  RAIL    PARALLEL,  AND  TO  SHOW 
THE  WOOD  REaUIRED  TO  CUT  THE  JOINT  IN  VARIOUS  POSITIONS. 

First,  As  I  Iiave  prepared  this  Plate  to  complete  Plate  XXXIV,  it  will  be  observed 
that  the  line  22  0  22  across  the  centre  of  Fig.  E,  whicli  is  the  same  as  the  letter  C  in 
Plate  VI,  is  cut  square  to  the  rake  or  hypothcnuse  line  of  the  stretchout.  Next  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  concave*  mould  Fig.  D,  does  not  run  parallel  to  Fig.  E  ;  therefore  23  0  23, 
which  is  square  to  the  mould,  will  not  be  parallel  to  the  line  22  0  22  in  Fig.  E  ;  conse- 
quently they  will  not  make  the  joint  required,  although  the  moulds  are  both  on  their  in- 
clined planes;  and  to  understand  ihe  thing  perfectly,  (see  the  two  small  portions  of  the 
common  pitch  boards  at  the  upper  and  lower  ends  of  the  two  moulds,  Fig's.  D  and  E, 
that  they  are  raising  equal  distances  at  the  letters  s  s  and  r  r  at  the  upper  and  lower 
ends  of  the  moulds,)  now  to  obtain  a  parallel  cut  to  tl>e  outside  of  the  rail,  draw  the  line 
22  U  22  across  Fig.  D,  parallel  to  22  0  22,  which  is  square  to  Fig.  E,  and  the  parallel  cut 
will  be  complete  ,  but  at  the  same  time  will  not  be  a  square  joint  in  front,  as  in  the  back, 
or  convex,  side  of  the  rail. 

TO  GET  THE  JOINT  SQUARE  IN  FRONT. 

First,  draw  the  line  23  o  23,  square  to  the  concave  mould  D ;  then  to  make  the  convex 
side  in  Fig.  E,  parallel  to  it,  draw  23  o  23,  in  E,  parallel  to  23  o  23,  in  Fig.  D,  and  the 
joint  will  be  complete — which  is  directly  reversed  to  the  above. 

TO  DIVIDE  THE  VARIATIONS,  AND    SHOW    DIFFERENT    aUANTITTES    OF    WOOD    REQUIRED    BY    THE 
VARIATIONS  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  POSITIONS  OF  THE  JOINT. 

First,  it  is  understood  that  the  lines  22  o  22  and  23  o  23,  are  explained,  and  run  parallel 
to  each  corresponding  line  in  the  two  moulds  ;  then  to  divide  the  difference,  divide  the 
distance  between  the  two  lines  22  and  23,  at  the  ends  of  the  lines,  and  in  the  circles 
running  through  22  23,  into  two  equal  parts;  then  draw  the  line  o  o  o,  through  the 
moulds,  which  will  produce  the  variation,  and  likewise  will  be  square  to  the  centre 
section  of  the  rail ;  that  is  the  same  as  to  say,  draw  a  falling-mould  for  the  middle  black 
line,  running  through  the  centre  o,  in  the  plan  of  the  rail,  at  Fig,  A,  which  is  also  the 
centre  section  of  the  elevation  of  the  rail.  Now  to  produce  the  wood  required  to  cut  the 
joint,  when  executed  in  either  of  the  three  positions  represented  by  the  lines  22  o  22, 
o  0  0.,  and  ?3  o  23,  drop  line-s  from  each  intersection  of  those  lines,  to  the  upper  and  under 
edge  of  the  falling-mould  Fig.  D  and  E,  down  to  the  plan  of  the  rail  at  Fig.  A,  and  the 
over-wood  for  either  will  be  produced  at  the  three  lines  at  the  right  and  left  of  the  line 
0  0  0  0  0,  round  perpendicular  through  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  or  well-hole.  The  three 
lines  each  side  are  represented  at  the  radiating  lines  1  2  22  22  3  4,  drawn  from  the  con- 
vex side  of  the  rail  A.  This,  as  above  observed,  must  pass  through  the  intersecting 
of  the  lines  at  the  upper  and  under  edge  of  the  rail,  or  falling  moulds  D  and  E. 

Note. — In  applying  the  falling-moulds  D  and  E,  care  must  be  taken  to  have  the 
plumb  lines  &  &,  placed  perfectly  parallel  to  the  plumb  cut  on  the  piece  to  which  they 
are  applied,  as  in  Plate  XXXIV,  where  the  falling-mould  C  is  applied  over  the  plan, 
Fig.  2,  (see  the  two  letters  o  c  in  C.)  Now  if  the  convex  and  concave  moulds  are  thus 
applied,  and  bent  round  in  proper  form,  the  joint  will  be  perfect.  The  letters  o  c,  z  z, 
and  kf,  represent  the  plumb  cuts  at  the  centre  joint  and  at  the  straight  and  circular  parts 

*  Meaning  the  inside  of  the  rail  in  the  circular  pnrr,  for  the  srirae  side  of  the  rail  in  its  straight  parts  might  properly 
be  termed  the  nulside,  for  the  well-hnje  is  the  outside  of  the  stairs :  but  any  diminution  towai  ds  the  axis  or  centre  of 
a  cylinder  or  circle,  will  be  conning  into  the  centre;  consequently  the  concave  mould  will  be  the  inside  mould  to 
the  circular  part. 

14 


54  ,  HAND-RAILING 

PL.    32. 

This  Plate  is  designed  to  explain  a  falling-mould  for  starting  off  of  tlie  second  floor, 
when  in  connection  with  the  first  story  rail;  and  also  to  bore  for  the  ballusters  without 
applying  it  to  the  stairs  until  it  is  finished. 

REFERENCES    TO    FIGURES   1,2,  AND  3. 

Fig.  1,  Falling-mould  or  rail  stretched  out  over  the  floor  and  stairs  of  the  2d  story. 

Fig.  2,  Ground  of  the  rail  and  well-hole.* 

Fig.  3,  Shows  a  practical  position  of  the  rail  and  twist  passing  over  the  platform, 
landing  on  the  floor,  and  from  thence  ascending  the  second  flight. 

Note. — Generally  the  student  in  his  practical  pursuits  of  stair  building,  labors  under 
some  difficulties  from  not  being  aware  of  the  method  of  drawing  and  applying  the  different 
falling-moulds  to  their  respective  places — (for  instance  the  falling-mould  that  connects 
the  level  rail  on  the  floor  with  the  rail  that  ascends  the  second  flight,) — notwithstanding 
the  similarity  existing  in  this  and  all  other  falling-moulds.  This  is  a  matter  of  the  first 
consideration  that  the  student  should  inquire  into,  for  by  such  means  he  may  execute  the 
most  intricate  stairs  with  as  much  ease  as  he  could  the  plainest  branch  connected  with 
the  building  business. 

EXPLANATION  TO  FIG.   I. 

Draw  the  floor  line  p  O,  (which  is  the  same  as  the  floor  line  h  O  in  Fig.  3,)  then  raise 
the  first  riser  q  u  r  of  the  second  flight  at  the  intersection  of  the  straight  rail  ascending 
the  circular  part  that  passes  round  the  well-hole,  and  connected  with  ihe  straight  part 
that  lies  horizontal  until  it  intersects  the  casing  over  the  last  riser,  and  descends  to  the 
platform  (as  in  Fig.  3) — then  apply  the  falling-mould  to  the  steps  and  risers  1,  2,  3,  4, — 
then  raise  a  on  the  rise  line  q  u  w  just  half  a  rise  (which  will  also  be  the  same  in  the 
line  A  ?t  A  in  Fig.  3,) — and  from  thus  proc(?eding,  the  rail  raises  one  half  a  riser  on  the 
floor,  which  is  necessary — and  then  it  raises  only  half  a  riser  in  passing  round  about 
two-ihirds  of  the  circular  opening — which  will  not  require  as  thick  stuff  as  it  would  if 
the  rail  did  not  raise  the  half  rise  on  the  floor.  Hence  it  will  be  understood  that  the  line 
7(  s  is  raised  half  a  rise  from  the  floor,  and  is  also  the  .stretchout  of  Fig.  2,  q  r  s,  which  is 
the  same  as  in  Plate  XVI,  only  on  a  smaller  scale.  It  will  also  be  understood  that  the 
line^j  q  r  s  t  is  the  stretchout  of  Fig.  2,  from  P  ir  r  s  t.  To  produce  the  rake  of  the  fall- 
ing-mould in  the  circular  part  of  the  rail,  extend  the  under  line  of  the  rail  from  G  down 
to  5  to  intersect  the  lower  line  m  5  s  ^  of  the  rail  passing  round  the  circle,  then  dra«  the 
intersecting  lines  as  in  all  other  examples,  and  then  the  ramp  will  be  produced,  as  ne- 
cessarily required. 

To  draw  the  joint  in  the  centre  at  y,  lake  any  distance  y  .c  in  the  dividers,  place  one 
point  in  y,  and  mark  by  turning  it  from  z  to  z  on  the  upper  edge  of  the  mould — then  take 
the  dividers  and  place  one  loot  on  ;  and  extend  the  other  to  r — then  let  one  point  stand, 
and  turn  the  other  point  out  to  ^^ — then  move  the  point  «5*  down  to  z,  and  turn  the  other 
point  up  to  c*^- — then  draw  a  line  from  the  intersection  at  ^  across  the  mould  through 
the  centre  vy,  and  the  joint  will  be  square  lo  the  rail. 

In  order  to  communicate  the  application  of  the  falling-mould  to  the  student  more  clear 
than  it  has  been  heretofore,  I  have  given  the  elevation  Fig.  3 — to  which  the  falling-mould 
Fig.  1  is  applied  as  follows:  First,  take  f  t  in  the  mould  Fig.  1,  which  is  the  joint,  and 
apply  it  lo  the  same  line  or  joint  pp  in  Fig.  3,  and  bend-  it  round  Fig.  3,  so  that  the  let- 

*  This  is  a  supposed  well-hjle  in  length,  bul  the  width  is  precisely  the  same  as  Pftte  XXXI,  and  is  dcsigiiid 
for  the  same  stairs. 


HAND-RATLING.  55 

ters  1 1  s  s  X  V  ic  to  and  y  in  the  centre  of  Fig.  1,  will  commence  with  1 1  in  Fig.  1,  and 
apply  to  p  p  in  Fig.  3,  and  so  on,  s  s  in  Fig.  I  to  u  u  in  Fig.  3,  y  in  the  centre  oi'  Fig.  1 
to  y  in  Fig.  3,  .r  v  in  Fig.  1  to  A  .r  in  Fig.  3,  v)  w  in  Fig.  1  to  q  q  in  Fig.  3,  minding  par- 
ticularly to  have  all  those  plumb  lines  on  the  falling-mould  Fig.  1  to  apply  precisely 
parallel  to  all  the  corresponding  lines  in  Fig.  3 — and  the  rail  worked  according  to  the 
application  of  the  mould  as  described,  must  inevitably  be  perfect,  or  so  nearly  so,  that  it 
would  require  a  more  perfect  executor  than  is  often  met  witli  to  point  out  tiie  defects — 
w  w  in  Fig.  1  is  the  same  joint  as  that  of  q  q  in  Fig.  3,  and  jj  in  the  plan  Fig.  2  :  x  v  is 
the  plumb  line  directly  over  the  first  riser,  and  at  the  junction  of  the  straight  and  circular 
part  of  the  rail — ?/  is  the  centre  of  the  rail,  the  same  as  ;•  in  Fig.  2  and  y  in  Fig.  3 — 
I,  2,  3,  4,  represent  the  steps  and  risers — a  bed  efg  h  i,  &c.  in  Fig.  1  at  the  top  of  the 
dotted  lines,  represent  the  centres  of  the  bannisters. 

EXPLANATION    TO    FIGURE  2. 

Fig.  2  is  a  horizontal  plan  of  the  rail  at  the  supposed  well-hole  in  length  which  may 
be  seen,  but  will  explain  the  object  in  view  just  as  well  as  if  it  included  the  whole  extent 
of  the  long  flights  ;  for  it  is  only  necessary  to  shew  the  joints,  stretchout  of  the  circle, 
plan  of  the  bannisters,  &c.  which  will  very  readily  be  seen  by  the  dotted  and  full  lines 
running  from  Fig's.  1  and  3 — all  corresponding,  and  intersecting  their  respective  plans  in 
the  plan  Fig.  2 — from  which  the  student  will  be  enabled  to  see  the  position  of  all  the 
risers  and  joints — a  bed  ef,  &c.  are  plans  of  the  bannisters — p  p  p  jj,  t  t  1 1  and  v  v  v  v 
plan  of  the  joints,  see  s  s  r  r  in  Fig.  3,  and  w  %v  in  Fig.  1,  with  the  lines  transferred  from 
one  to  the  other — q  r  s  is  the  stretchout  of  the  rail  from  v  round  by  r  to  o,  and  is  the 
same  as  the  stretchout  in  Plate  XVI,  letter  A  from  13  to  14,  and  is  the  same  as  above 
mentioned,  only  on  a  reduced  scale — the  dotted  line  2,  2,  is  the  line  of  the  nosing — and 
3,  3,  the  front  string. 

EXPLANATION  TO   FIGURE  3. 

Fig.  3  shovv.s  an  elevcition  and  twist  of  the  rail, — line  of  the  platform, — one  step  and 
riser  of  the  lower  long  flight, — a  piece  of  the  rail  oA^er  the  same, — the  line  of  the  second 
floor  with  the  rail  passing  over  the  same, — three  risers  and  two  steps  of  the  second  long 
flight,— and  the  rail  passing  over  the  same,  twisting  round  the  circular  opening. — C,  tread 
of  the  last  steps  of  the  first  long  flight — E,  last  riser  of  the  long  flight — B,  floor  of  the 
platform — D,  first  riser  of  the  short  flight  starting  oft' of  the  platform  B,  and  ascending  to 
the  second  floor — h  O  is  the  line  of  the  second  floor — A  A  is  the  first  riser  of  the  second 
long  flight,  Avhich  is  the  same  as  the  riser  q  v  in  Fig.  I — q  q,  joint  of  the  rail,  the  same  as 
WW  in  Fig.  1—p  p,  joint  corresponding  with  1 1  in  Vig.  1 — y,  the  centre  of  the  rail  at  the 
joint,  the  same  as  y  in  Fig.  1 — r  r  joint,  see  u  u  u  li'in  Fig.  2 — s  s  s  s  joints,  see  vv  vv 
in  Fig.  2. 

The  above  application  of  the  falling-mould,  (for  Avhich  this  drawing  is  expressly  de- 
signed,) is  perhaps  plainer  than  any  extant  at  the  present  period — for  it  has  heretofore 
been  too  much  the  case,  that  learned  authors  have  explained  this  part  of  the  work  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  has  been  diflicult  for  a  mechanic  of  common  abilities  to  attain  to 
this  branch  of  his  occupation. 

TO    BORE    FOR    THE.   BANNISTERS. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  dotted  lines  abed  efg  h  i,  S^-e.  are  the  centres  of  the  ban- 
nisters ;  therefore  it  will  be  understood  that  they  are  at  equal  distances,  and  may  be 
stepped  off"  with  a  divider,  the  same  as  on  a  iiorizontal  plane,  and  then  bored  according 
to  the  hypothenu.se  or  rake  of  the  stairs  by  lines  struck  plumb  across  the  rail  by  the 


56  SCROLLS  AND  HAND-RAILING. 

pitch-board.  This  process  is  before  the  rail  is  rounded  or  moulded.  To  set  the  bannis- 
ters in  order  on  the  platform  or  floor,  just  place  the  rail  up  in  order  to  receive  the  ban- 
nisters, all  in  proper  height  then  take  a  rod  that  will  easily  enter  the  bannister  hole,  and 
drive  a  point  in  the  lower  end;  then  put  the  upper  end  in  the  rail,  and  make  it  precisely 
plumb;  then  make  an  impression  in  the  floor  with  the  point,  which  will  give  the  centre 
of  the  hole ;  then  let  the  bannister  round  the  circles  be  the  first  set  in  the  rail,  as  they 
cannot  he  entered  at  the  bottom  as  in  the  step. 

RECIPROCAL  SPIRALS,  OR  SCROLLS  FOR  STAIR-RAILING. 
To  join  a  scroll  to  an  elliptical  or  even  a  circular  stair-rail,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  have 
them  perfectly  harmonize,  is  somewhat  of  a  difficult  task,  and  requires  a  workman 
of  much  taste  and  judgment.  The  reciprocal  scroll  is  better  adapted  to  a  circular  rail, 
than  any  other  kind.  It  is  easily  drawn,  may  be  expanded  to  a  greater  or  less  distance, 
and  made  to  have  more  or  less  revolutions,  as  suits  the  pleasure  of  the  operator.  The 
four  designs  w^hich  follow,  have,  in  the  order  of  the  numerical  succession,  one  and  a 
quarter,  one  and  a  half,  one  and  three-quarters,  and  two,  revolutions. 

PL.  33. 

TO  DRAW  A  RECIPROCAL  SPIRAL,  WHICH  SHALL  MAKE  ONE  REVOLUTION  AND  A  aUARTER. 

For  the  eye  of  the  spiral,  describe  a  circle  (Plate  XXXIIl.Fig.  1,)  having  any  diame- 
ter, say  three  and  a  half  inches;  (see  scale  of  inches  at  Fig.  5;  divide  its  circumference 
into  eight  equal  parts,  and  from  its  centre  draw  radii  to  the  points  of  division,  and  produce 
or  continue  those  radii  indefinately;  in  the  line  5  1,  thus  produced,  take  any  point,  as  for 
instance  1,  as  the  extent  or  limit  of  the  expansion  of  the  scroll,  and  at  1,  in  the  line  5  1, 
erect  a  perpendicular,  1  10,  of  any  length,  and  divide  it  into  ten  equal  parts;  on  the  line 
5  1,  set  ofl' the  part  o  s,  equal  to  the  width  of  the  rail,  and  from  1,  in  the  perpendicular 
1  10,  count  oflfas  many  divisions  as  are  equal  to  the  number  of  eighths  of  a  circle  that 
the  scroll  is  to  expand;  (as,  in  this  instance,  two  divisions;)  from  the  point  of  division  2, 
in  the  perpendicular  1  10,  draw  the  line  2  s,  and  from  the  point  10,  the  line  10  0,  meeting 
the  eye  of  the  scroll  at  0,  and  produce  the  lines  10  0,  2  s,  till  they  meet ;  the  point  where 
they  meet  will  be  the  point  wiiere  the  lines  from  all  the  other  points  of  division  in  110, 
w^ili  likewise  meet;  which  draw,  accordingly. 

TO  DETERMINE  THE  LOCATION  OF  THE  POINTS  2  3,  &C.  ON  THE  OUTSIDE  OP  THE  SCROLL. 

Take,  in  the  compass,  the  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  eye  to  the  point  where  the 
line  5  1  is  intersected  by  the  line  from  the  first  point  of  division  1,  in  the  perpendicular 
1  10,  and  with  that  distance  as  radius,  keeping  one  point  of  the  compass  on  the  centre 
of  the  eye,  describe  an  arc  so  as  to  cut  the  produced  line  6  2;  the  point  of  intersection, 
2,  will  be  one  point  on  the  outside  of  the  scroll.  And  to  find  other  points,  as  3,  4,  &c. 
take,  successively,  tlie  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  eye  to  the  several  points  where 
the  line  5  1  is  intersected  by  the  second,  third,  &c.  lines  from  the  perpendicular  1  10, 
and  from  the  centre  of  the  eye  as  a  centre,  with  those  distances  successively  as  radii, 
describe  arcs  cutting  the  produced  lines  7  3,  2  4,  &c.]  and  the  location  of  the  points  3,  4, 
&c.  on  the  outside  of  scroll,  will  be  ascertained. 

TO  FIND  THE  CENTRES  FROM  WHICH  TO    DESCRIBE  THE  CURVES   1    2,  2  3,  &C.    ON  THE    OUTSIDE 


OF  THE  SCROLL. 


From  the  point  1,  in  the  line  5  1,  as  a  centre,  with  the  distance  from  that  point  to 
the  centre  of  the  eye  as  radius,  describe  any  arc,  as  at  1 ;  from  the  point  2,  on  the  outside 


SCROLLS  AND  HAND-RAILING.  57 

of  the  sci'oll,  as  a  centre,  and  with  the  same  radius,  describe  another  arc,  cutting  the 
former  in  the  point  1,  and  that  point  will  be  the  centre  for  describing  the  curve  1  2;  which 
describe,  accordingly.  In  like  manner,  to  find  the  centre  for  describing  the  curve  2  3, 
take  the  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  eye  to  the  intersection  of  the  first  line  from  the 
perpendicular  1  10,  with  the  line  5  1,  and  with  that  distance  as  radius,  and  from  the 
points  2,  3,  as  centres,  describe  arcs  so  as  to  cut  each  other,  and  from  the  point  of  inter- 
section, describe  the  curve  2  3.     Proceed  in  the  same  way  for  the  rest. 

In  the  construction  of  Fig's.  2,  3,  and  4,  proceed  as  in  drawing  Fig.  1 ;  bearing  it  in 
mind,  that  the  number  of  parts  into  which  the  perpendicular  is  to  be  divided,  must  equal 
the  number  of  eighths  of  a  circle  that  the  spiral  is  to  revolve ;  that  the  number  of  divisions 
to  be  counted  off'  on  the  perpendicular,  (reckoning  always  from  that  extremity  of  it  which 
meets  the  line  5  1.)  in  order  to  know  from  what  point  in  it  to  draw  a  straight  line  to  s, 
must  equal  the  number  of  eighths  that  the  spiral  is  to  expand;  that  the  outermost  line 
from  the  perpendicular  must  pass  through  o,  on  the  eye  of  the  spiral ;  and  tliat  the  point 
where,  when  produced,  this  outermost  line  and  the  one  drawn  to  s,  will  meet  is  the  point 
to  which  all  the  other  lines  from  the  perpendicular  must  be  drawn.  The  student  will 
perceive,  that  one  revolution  and  a  quarter  in  the  spiral,  requires  ten  equal  divisions  in 
the  perpendicular ;  one  revolution  and  a  half,  twelve  divisions  ;  one  and  three  quarters, 
fourteen  ;  and  so  on. 

Fig.  5.  is  a  scale  of  inches  for  figures  1  and  2.  and  Fig.  6.  a  scale  for  figures  3  and  4. 

PL.  34. 

STAIR   RAILING   OVER   A    SMALL    OPENING. 

To  furnish  such  drawings  and  explanations  of  the  several  parts  of  stairs  as  can  be 
comprehended  by  workmen,  not  versed  in  science,  nor  much  experienced  in  (he  stair 
department,  and  as  will  enable  them  to  execute  with  a  considerable  degree  of  accuracy, 
,it  is  necessary  to  study  simplicity,  both  in  the  drawings  themselves,  and  in  the  terms 
used  for  their  explanation.  In  what  follows,  I  shall  aim  to  do  this,  even  if  it  be  at  the 
occasional  sacrifice  of  that  verbal  polish,  and  that  scientific  arrangement  and  explanation, 
which  a  learned  reader  might  desire. 

THE    PLAN   OF    THE    SEMICIRCULAR   PAR,T    OP    A    STAIR-RAIL    BEING    GIVEN,    TO    OBTAIN   THE 

CONVEX    FALLING-MODLD. 

Let  A  C  E,  F  H  J  (Fig.  1.)  be  the  plan  of  a  .semicircular  part  of  a  stair-rail,  having 
a  portion  of  straight  rail  attached  to  it;  with  the  diameter,  G  I,  of  the  convex  side  of  the 
plan  for  radius,  and  from  the  points  G,  I,  as  centres,  describe  arcs  cutting  each  other  at 
P,  and  join  P  I,  P  G;  bi.sect  the  arc  I  H  G  in  H,  and  through  H  draw-  a  tangent,  K  H  L, 
of  any  length,  and  produce  the  lines  P  I,  P  G,  till  they  meet  the  tangent:  the  part  K  L, 
cut  oir  by  P  I  and  P  G  produced,  is  the  extension  or  stretchout  of  the  convex  side,  I  H  G, 
of  the  plan.  Draw  the  line  c  e  (Fig.  2,)  equal  to  the  tangent  K  L,  and  at  e,  in  the  base 
c  e,  erect  a  perpendicular,  ef,  equal  to  the  height  of  a  step,  and  join  c,f;  at  each  end 
of  the  hypotlienuse  cf,  apply  the  pitch-board  of  a  common  step  in  the  manner  exhibited 
in  Fig's.  A  and  B,  and  make  r  b  ov  q  y  in  the  pitch-board  a  b  c,  and  fu  in  the  pitch- 
board/^  A,  each  equal  in  length,  I  J  or  D  E,  of  the  straight  part  of  the  rail;  making 
allowance  for  the  casings  at  c  and/  the  line  a  cfh,  formed  by  the  hypothenuse  cf  and 
the  upper  edges  of  the  two  pitch-boards,  is  the  lower  edge  of  the  required  convex  falling- 
mould,  of  which  the  part  q  cfi  is  all  that  is  required  in  this  instance.  On  each  side 
,of  the  angles  c,  f,  in  the  lower  edge  of  said  mould,  set  off  any  number  of  equal  parts,  say 
six  or  eight,  and  from  that  point  of  division  which  is  nearest  the  angle  on  one  side,  draw 
a  straight  line  to  that  point  which  is  fiirthest  from  the  angle  on  the  other  side:  do  the 

15 


58  HAND-RAILING 

same  from  all  the  other  points  of  division,  and  by  the  intersections  of  these  lines,  obtain  the 
easings  at  c  and  f;  parallel  to  tlie  lower  edge  thus  completed,  and  at  wlialever  distance 
may  be  fixed  upon  for  the  widtli  of  ihe  mould,  draw  a  line  for  the  upper  edge,  and  the 
required  convex  falling-mould  (Fig.  C)  will  be  completed. 

The  line  /  m  n  (Fig.  C)  represents  a  butt-joint,  and  C  r,  or  II  v,  (Fig.  1)  sliews  the 
overwood  necessary  for  cutting  said  joint,  and  are  obtained  thus  :  at  the  point  H,  (Fig.  1) 
in  the  tangent  K  L,  erect  a  perpendicular,  and  produce  it  so  as  to  cross  the  convex  mould 
C  ;  bisect  the  part,  z  ~,  which  crosses  the  mould,  and  through  the  point  of  bisection,  m, 
draw  /  in  n;  at  right  angles  to  the  hypothenuse  c/,  and  from  n,  let  fall  a  perpendicular, 
n  V,  upon  the  tangent  K  L:  as  already  stated,  the  line  /  m  n  represents  a  butt-joint  in 
the  centre  of  the  semicircular  part  of  the  rail,  and  C  v,  or  H  v,  (Fig.  1)  is  the  width  of 
overwood  required  to  cut  it;  for  which  overwood,  allowance  is  made  in  Fig's.  4,  6,  &c. 

Fio-ures3  and  D  represent  the  stretchout  and  falling-mould  of  the  concave  part  of  the 
plan  at  Fig.  1,  and  are  obtained  in  tlie  same  manner  as  Fig's.  2  and  C:  the  base  c  e 
(Fig.  3)  being  equal  to  the  tangent  M  N  at  Fig.  1 ;  c/,  equal  to  the  height  of  a  riser ;  q  y 
and/»,  equal  to  the  same  portions  of  straight  rail  as  in  Fig's.  2  and  C;  and  so  forth.  It 
will  be  perceived,  tiiat  the  two  falling-moulds  (Fig's.  C  and  D)  have  different  angles  of 
inclination  ;  that  the  line  /  m  n,  in  order  to  be  parallel  to  /  m  n  in  Fig.  C,  (which  it  must 
be.)  cannot  be  at  riglit  angles  to  the  hypothenuse  c  f,  as  in  Fig.  C;  and  lastly,  that 
straio-ht  lines  drawn  across  the  mould  C  and  D,  at  right  angles  to  the  base  c  e,  will  have 
vmequal  lengths,  those  crossing  D  being  necessarily  the  longest.  This  fact  must  be  par- 
ticularly attended  to  by  stair-builders  if  they  would  construct  hand-rails  in  the  best  pos- 
sible manner.  Even  where  attention  is  paid  to  it,  some  difficulty  is  experienced  in  the 
application  of  the  moulds,  and  in  the  construction  of  the  rail.  Mr.  Coulter,  of  Phila- 
delphia, recommends  the  method  of  dividing  the  difference  in  the  width  of  the  two  fiilling- 
moulds  into  two  equal  parts,  and  lowering  the  concave  side  of  the  rail  a  distance  equal 
to  one  of  these  parts,  at  the  same  time  that  the  convex  side  is  elevated  a  distance  equal 
to  the  other.  This  method,  though  liable  to  some  trifling  objections,  is  doubtless  the 
best  that  has  been  devised.  It  will  not,  however,  make  an  inelegant  rail,  if  the  convex 
side  be  elevated  a  distance  equal  to  the  whole  difference  in  the  width  of  the  falling-moulds, 
without  lowering  the  concave  side  at  all.  I  will  just  add  that,  further  on,  will  be  found 
drawings  and  explanations  adapted  expressly  to  this  case;  and  to  these  the  student  is 
referred  for  what  further  aid  and  information  he  may  require. 

THE  PLAN  BEING  GIVEN,  TO  OBTAIN  THE  FACE  MOULD  OF  A  STAIR-RAIL,  WHICH,  WHEN  PLACED 
OVER  THE  PLAN  AT  A  PROPER  ANGLE  OF  INCLINATION,  WILL  COINCIDE  WITH  THE  SAID  PLAN, 
PART  WITH  PART. 

Let  Fig.  1  be  the  given  plan,  as  before,  and  draw  A  B  ?;  r  I  J,  (Fig.  4)  equal  to  that 
part  of  Fig.  1  which  is  represented  by  the  same  letters;  join  the  ends  of  the  dotted  curve 
passing  longitudinally  through  the  centre  of  the  semi-plan  at  Fig.  4,  by  the  straight  line 
w  to ;  through  the  point  A,  and  parallel  to  id  ic,  draw  a  straight  line,  x  A  x,  of  any  length, 
and  parallel  to  it,  draw  another  line,  y  p,  of  indefinite  length,  so  as  to  touch  the  convex 
side  of  the  semi-plan ;  through  the  point  J,  draw  a  straight  line  at  right  angles  to  the 
tangent  y  y,  and  produce  the  said  line  through  J  and  said  tangent,  till  they  meet  in  the 
point  y;  through  the  middle  point,  w,  of  the  end  of  the  circular  part  of  the  semi-plan, 
and  at  right  angles  to  the  straight  line  w  w,  draw  the  line  n  s  n,  of  any  length,  and  make 
the  part  s  n  (Fig.  5)  equal  to  s  n  in  Fig.  2 ;  through  n,  (Fig.  5)  draw  tlie  line  z  n  y, 
(Avhich  line  is  the  hypothenuse  of  the  triangle  z  y  y,  and  shows  the  rake  or  inclination 
the  face  mould  is  to  have,)  and  through  the  points  A,  I,  B,  &c.  in  the  semi-plan,  and  at 
right  angles  to  the  tangent  y  y,  draw  the  lines  A  A,  9  9,  ^c.  meeting  the  hypothenuse 


HAND-RAILING.  59 

z  y  in  the  points  A,  9,  ^x  ;  at  the  points  where  they  meet  said  hypothenuse,  erect  the 
perpendiculars  9  I,  6  5,  &c.  (Fig.  6)  making  them  equal  to  9  I,  6  5,  «S;c.  in  Fig.  4,  and 
the  parts  6  B,  7  4,  &c.  in  Fig.  6,  equal  to  the  similarly  named  parts  in  Fig.  4;  through 
the  points  thus  obtained,  trace  the  curved  J  I  r,  A  B  u,  and  you  will  have  the  face  moiild 
required.  , 

TO  APPLY  THE  FACE  MOULD  TO  A  PLANK  FOR  GETTING  OUT  A  RAIL  PIECE, 

Let  the  oblong  1,2,  3,  4,  (Fig.  7)  represent  the  upper  side  of  the  plank  ;  2,  5,  6,  .3,  the 
thickness  of  the  same ;  and  5,  8,  7,  6,  the  under  side.  Take  the  face  mould  (Fig.  6)  and 
apply  it,  as  at  Fig.  7,  keeping  the  end  u  u  as  far  from  the  edge  of  the  plank  as  is  indicated 
by  Figs.  4  and  6,  and  tracing  out  its  shape  A  J  f  v ;  take  the  pitch  bevel  A  at  Fig.  5, 
(which  shows  the  angle  of  inclination  that  the  rail  is  to  have.)  and  apply  it  as  at  A  and 
A ;  (Fig.  8)  make  the  plumb-cuts  C  C,  A  A,  across  the  edge,  and  also  the  perpendicular 
c  V  on  the  under  side  of  the  plank,  equal  to  c  t>  on  the  upper  side,  and  then  applying  the 
face-mould  again,  as  at  Fig.  9,  complete  the  outline  for  cutting  the  rail-piece. 

TO  APPLY  THE  CONVEX  AND  CONCAVE  FALLING  MOULDS  TO  A  RAIL-PIECE. 

When  the  rail-piece  has  been  cut  out,  as  just  described,  take  the  convex  mould  Fig.  C, 
(which  is  supposed  to  be  made  of  pasteboard)  and  apply  it  to  the  convex  edge  of  the 
rail-piece  at  Fig.  7,  bending  it  round  so  that  the  points  p,  o,  3,  in  the  upper  edge  of  the 
mould,  may  coincide,  each" with  each,  with  the  points  J,  I,  v,  in  the  upper  side  of  the 
convex  edge  of  the  rail-piece,  and  so  that  the  lines  p  q,  o  c,3  n,  drawn  across  the  mould 
C  at  right  angles  to  its  base,  c  e,  may  tally,  each  to  each,  with  the  plumb  cuts  A  A,  B  B, 
C  C,  made  on  the  concave  edge  of  the  rail-piece,  and  continue  across  the  under  side  to 
meet  the  above  mentioned  lines.  Having  applied  and  bent  round  the  mould  in  this 
manner,  trace  lines  along  its  upper  and  lower  edges,  and  you  will  have  the  outline  for 
finishing  the  convex  side  of  the  rail. 

In  the  same  way,  apply  the  concave  mould  D  to  the  concave  edge  of  the  rail-piece, 
making  the  straight  part,  j)  o,  in  the  upper  edge  of  the  mould,  coincide  with  the  straight 
part,  A  B,  in  the  upper  concave  edge  of  the  rail-piece ;  and  thus  far,  the  two  falling- 
moulds  will  have  the  same  angle  of  inclination.  To  find  what  inclination  to  give  to  the 
circular  part  of  the  concave  mould  D,  from  the  point  n,  in  the  lower  edge  of  the  convex 
mould  C,  (which  is  supposed  to  be  bent  round  the  convex  edge  of  the  rail-piece,)  square 
across  the  under  side  of  the  rail-piece,  and  from  the  point  2,  (Fig.  D)  where  the  line  thus 
squared  across,  is  supposed  to  meet  the  lower  concave  edge  of  the  rail-piece,  draw  the 
horizontal  line  2  4  ;  from  2,  in  the  line  2  4,  set  off  2  ~,  equal  to  the  overwood  for  a  butt- 
joint,  and- z  will  be  that  point  in  the  concave  edge  of  the  rail-piece,  on  which  the  middle 
point  in  the  lower  edge  of  the  circular  part  of  mould  D,  will  rest.  Now  trace  the  outline 
for  completing  the  concave  side  of  the  rail.  Observe  that  the  difference  in  the  length 
of  n  2  in  Fig.  C,  and  n  2  in  Fig.  D,  represents  the  difference  the  two  falling-moulds  will 
have  in  their  angle  of  inclination. 

PL.  3.5. 

For  the  method  of  finding  the  face  and  falling  moulds,  exhibited  in  this  and  the  follow- 
ing Plate,  and  for  the  drawings  connected  with  the  same,  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Joshua 
Coulter,  of  Philadelphia,  of  whom  mention  has  already  been  made,  in  the  preface  to  this 
work.  The  method  exhibited  in  this  plate,  is  well  adapted  to  small  openings  of  from 
seven  to  twelve  inches  in  diameter.  When  the  opening  is  enlarged,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  throw  the  steps  into  a  circle,  in  order  to  preserve,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  same 
inclination  in  the  circular,  that  belongs  to  the  straight  part  of  the  rail.     By  pursuing  this 


60  HAND-RAILIN(5, 

method,  the  usual  droop  in  the  middle  of  the  circular  part,  will  be  almost  wholly  pre- 
vented and  as  any  length  of  straight  rail  may  be  attached  to  the  circular  part,  (he 
disadvantage  of  having  the  grain  of  the  wood  run  cross-wise,  may  be  avoided. 

TO  OBTAIN  THE  FALLING-MOULD  AT  FIG.  4,  FROM  THE  SEMI-PLAN  AT  FIG   1.     ' 

Obtain  the  stretchout,  e  i,  of  the  curve  e  d,  (Fig.  1)  in  the  same  way  as  in  the  last 
Plate,  and  Draw  the  base  C  F,  (Fig.  3)making  each  of  its  parts,  C  D,  D  F,  equal  to  the 
stretchout  e  i;  at  right  angles  C  F,  Draw  F  H,  equal  to  the  height  of  a  common  step, 
and  draw  the  hypothenuse  H  C ;  place  the  pitch-boards  A  B  C,  H  J  K,  in  the  position 
exhibited  in  the  figure,  and  produce  the  side,  B  C,  of  the  pitch-board  A  B  C,  any  distance, 
C  M,  say  about  one-third  the  length  of  B  C  ;  through  the  point  E,  where  a  perpendicular 
from  the  middle  of  the  base  cuts  the  hypothenuse  C  H,  draw  M  N,  making  E  N  equal 
to  M  E,  and  join  N  H ;  from  M  towards  N,  in  the  line  M  N,  set  off  a  part  equal  to  M  C, 
and  from  N  towards  N,  a  part  equal  to  N  H,  and  divide  the  part  thus  set  off,  together 
with  M  C,  N  H,  into  any  number  of  equal  parts ;  draw  the  intersecting  lines  for  the 
casings  at  M  and  N,  and  complete  the  falling-mould,  in  the  manner  described  in 
Plate  XXXIV. 

TO  OBTAIN  THE  FACE  MOULT)  AT  FIG.  5,  BY  MEANS  OF  ORDINATES. 

Perpendicularly  over  h  g  in  the  semi-plan,  form  a  section  of  the  rail,  (Fig.  7)  so  that 
its  top  shall  be  on  a  level  with  a  line  drawn  from  .r  (Fig.  4)  parallel  to  the  base  F  C,'  and 
so  that  the  said  line  from  .r,  and  the  line  2  3,  in  the  upper  edge  of  the  falling-mould,  may, 
when  produced,  meet  in  the  middle  point,  4,  of  the  top  of  the  section;  through  any  point, 
as  a,  in  the  straight  part  of  the  semi-plan,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  sides  of  said  straight 
part,  draw  a  straight  line,  a  b,  across  it,  and  produce  a  h  till  it  cuts  the  line  z  h  in  (/,  and 
till  it  meets  the  upper  edge  of  the  falling-mould  at  the  point  2;  divide  the  width  of  the 
rail,  a  b,  into  three  equal  parts,  and  at  that  point  of  division,  r,  nearest  the  point  a,  erect 
a  perpendicular,  ?■  s,  equal  to  s  z  in  Fig.  7;  join  (j,  s,  (Fig.  1)  and  produce  the  line  qs,  till 
it  meets  the  side  of  the  rail  at  t ;  produce  the  diameter  d  C,  (Fig.  1)  till  it  meets  the 
upper  edge  of  the  falling-mould,  and  at  the  points  3, 2,  where  the  produced  lines  do,  «  2, 
meet  the  upper  edge  of  said  mould,  erect  the  perpendiculars  3  a,  2  c,  making  the  parts 
3  IP,  2  a,  each  equal  to  t  a  in  Fig.  1,  and  the  parts  to  a,  a  c,  cacli  equal  to  q  t  in  Fig.  1  ; 
through  the  points  a  w,  in  the  perpendiculars  2  c,  3  a,  draw  a  straight  line,  a  h  a,  of  any 
length,  and  produce  the  line  b  3,  (Fig.  1)  till  it  meets  the  line  a  h  a  in  the  point  2;  from 
said  point,  draw  a  straight  line,  2  a,  to  the  extremity,  a,  of  the  perpendicular  3  a.  and  the 
line  2  a  will  be  the  directing  ordinate  for  the  face-mould  at  Fig.  5.  With  this  ordinate 
for  radius,  and  from  d  (Fig.  1)  as  a  centre,  describe  an  arc  cutting  the  line  z  h  at  2,  and 
join  d,  2:  the  line  d  2  will  be  the  directing  ordinate  of  the  semi-plan.  Parallel  lo  tZ  2 
draw  other  ordinates  across  the  semi-plan,  and  from  tlic  points  5,  8,  &c.  where  tliey 
meet  the  convex  side  of  the  semi-plan,  draw  straight  lines  at  right  angles  to  z  h,  and 
jiroduce  them  till  they  meet  the  line  a  h  a  in  Fig.  5  ;  from  the  points  Avhere  they  meet 
a  h  a,  draw  the  ordinates  3  5,  6  8,  &.c.  parallel  to  the  governing  ordinate  2  «,  and  equal 
to  3  5,  6  8,  iStc.  in  the  semi-plan,  and  complete  the  face-mould  in  the  manner  heretofore 
described. 

Fig.  6  shews  the  bevel  or  spring  of  the  plank,  and  is  obtained  by  making  a  /"and  c  c 
in  Fig.  6  equal  to  if  a  in  Fig.  1,  and  drawing  the  lines  e  b,  b  c,  &c.  as  in  the  figure.  The 
rhomboid  ab  c  d,  exhibits  the  shape  and  spring  of  the  plaiik. 

In  the  application  of  the  face-mould,  use  the  pitch-board  in  room  of  the  pilch-bevel, 
and  have  the  straiglit  part  of  the  mould  parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  plank.     Apply  the 


HAND-RAILING.  61 

falling-mould,  and  with  the  exception  just  mentioned,  the  face-mould  also,  precisely  as 
directed  in  the  preceding  plate. 

PL.  36. 

This  Plate  exhibits  a  somewhat  different  and  doubtless  better  method  of  drawing  the 
face  and  foiling  moulds  of  a  stair  rail,  than  that  exhibited  in  the  preceding  Plate.  As 
already  stated,  botli  were  furnished  me  by  Mr.  Joshua  Coulter.  The  face-mould,  Avhen 
drawn  as  exhibited  in  this  Plate,  gives  an  equal  fproportion  of  width  to  the  upper  and 
lower  ends ;  and  the  falling-mould  is,  by  this  method,  drawn  in  the  best  manner,  probably, 
of  which  it  is  susceptible.  This  mode  of  drawing  it,  has  the  effect  to  lower  the  concave 
side  of  the  rail  towards  the  nosings,  and  to  elevate  the  convex  side;  as  exhibited  in  the 
position  of  the  two  falling-moulds  at  Fig.  A. 

TO  DR.4.W  THE  CONVEX  AND  CONCAVE  PALLING  MOULDS  AT  FIG.  A. 

Let  Fig.  1.  be  the  plan  of  the  semi-circular  part  of  the  rail,  with  a  portion  of  straight 
rail  attached,  and  let  j  k  be  the  stretchout  of  the  convex  side  of  the  plan,  and  5  7,  that 
of  the  concave  side ;  at  the  end,  k,  of  the  convex  stretchout  j  k,  place  the  pitch-boar^ 
3  /.-  z,  so  that  its  base,  k  z,  shall  form  a  continuation  of  the  stretchout  line,  and  at  the 
end,  7,  of  the  concave  stretchout  5  7,  place  the  pitch-board  5  7  &,  in  the  same  manner  ; 
at  the  other  ends,  j,  5,  of  the  two  stretchouts,  erect  the  perpendiculars  j  3,  5  5,  each  equal 
in  length  to  the  height  of  the  pitch-boards  just  mentioned  and  the  stretchout  of  the 
winders  put  together,  and  at  the  upper  ends  of  these  perpendiculars,  place  the  pitch- 
boards  3  6  &,  5  y/  ^,  in  the  position  exhibited  in  the  figure  ;  connect  the  upper  pitch-board 
3  6  «&,  with  the  lower  one  3  k  z,  by  the  line  3  3,  and  allowing  for  the  casings,  ^  3  3  & 
is  the  lower  edge  of  the  convex  falling-mould ;  which  mould  is  to  be  completed  in  the 
manner  heretofore  described.  To  obtain  the  butt-joint  at  i  j,  joint  the  tops  of  the  tw(^ 
lower  pitch-boards  by  the  line  3  5  ;  bisect  the  distances,  j  5,  7  k,  intercepted  between 
the  ends  of  the  two  stretchouts,  and  at  the  points  of  bisection,  2,  6,  erect  perpendiculars, 
and  produce  them  till  they  meet  the  lines  3  5,  3  5  ;  join  the  points  where  they  meet 
those  lines,  by  the  line  2  2,  bisecting  the  lower  edge  of  the  convex  falling-mould  ;  bisect 
that  part  of  the  central  perpendicular,  ef,  which  crosses  the  falling-mould,  and  through 
the  point  of  bisection,  g,  and  at  the  right  angles  to  the  line  2  2,  draw  the  line  ij  for  a  butt- 
jpint. 

To  obtain  the  concave  falling-mould,  produce  the  side,  k  3,  of  the  pitch-board  3  k  z, 
till  it  meets  the  upper  edge  of  the  convex-mould  in  the  point  4,  and  bisect  the  produced 
part,  3  4,  in  1  ;  at  the  point  of  bisection,  erect  a  perpendicular,  1  1,  producing  said  per- 
pendicular and  the  side  7  5,  of  the  pitch-board  5  7  &,  till  they  meet  in  the  point  1  ;  pro- 
duce the  perpendicular  j  3,  so  that  the  part  produced,  3  4,  shall  be  equal  to  3  4  at  tlie 
lower  end  of  tlie  mould,  and,  bisecting  3  4  in  1,  obtain  the  location  of  the  point  1,  in  the 
line  5  5  1,  in  the  same  manner  as  at  the  lower  end;  join  the  points  1,  1,  thus  obtained, 
by  the  line  1  1,  (which  line  will  pass  longitudinally  through  the  centre  of  the  required 
concave  mould,)  and  through  the  points,  i,j,  at  the  butt-joint,  draw  lines  parallel  to  the 
centre  line  1  1,  and  the  concave  falling-mould  will  be  completed 

TO  DRAW  THE  FACE  MOULD  AT  FIG.  6. 

Let  Fig.  3  represent  the  semi-plan,  or  half  of  Fig.  1,  of  which  A  is  the  centre,  and  A  g 
a  radius,  cutting  the  semi-plan  at  the  junction  of  the  straight  and  circular  parts  of  the 
rail ;  join  the  ends  of  the  curve  passing  lengthwise  through  the  centre  of  the  semi-plan, 
by  the  straight  line  s  t,  and  through  the  inside  corner  (or  corner  nearest  the  centre  A) 
of  that  end  of  the  semi-plan  which  is  straight,  draw  a  straight  line,  y  h  v,  of  any  length 

16 


62  UAND-RAILING. 

and  parallel  to  the  line  s  t;  througli  the  pointy,  in  the  butt  joiintij,  (Fig.  A)  and  parallel 
to  the  perpendicular  e  f,  draw  a  straight  line,  meeting  the  base  in  the  point  8,  and  the 
upper  edge  of  the  convex  lalling-niould  in  s ;  set  the  length  ol'  the  straight  part  of  the  rail 
in  Fig.  1  from  /.'  to  m  on  the  base  and  at  m,  erect  a  perpendicular  of  sufficient  length  to 
meet  the  upper  edge  of  the  mould,  as  at  d;  through  the  ends  s,  of  the  line  s  t,  (Fig.  3)  and 
at  right  angles  to  s  I,  draw  a  straight  line  meeting  the  line  ij  li  u  in  m,  and  produce  it  in 
the  opposite  direction  till  the  whole  length,  reckoning  from  u,  is  equal  to  the  line  8  s, 
(making  allowance  for  ov^erwood,)  intercepted  between  the  base  and  the  upper  edge  of  the 
convex  mould  at  Fig.  A;  through  the  other  end,  t,  of  ihe  line  s  t,  (Fig.   3)  and  at  right 
angles  s  t,  draw  the  line  h  t  d,  meeting  the  line  y  h  u  in  /;,  and  produced  in  the  other 
direction  till  the  whole  length  h  d,  is  equal  to  the  perpendicular  m  d  in  Fig.  A  ;  through 
the  upper  ends  of  the  two  lines  thus  formed,  draw  a  straight  line  y  u  lo,  (Fig.  6)  of  any 
length,  and  from  the  centre  A,  draw  the  line  A  5  I  1,  at  right  angles  to  s  t,  and  meeting 
the  rake-line  y  u  to  in  the  point  1   1 ;  take,  in  (he  compass,  the  arc  §•  5,  intercepted  on 
the  convex  side  of  the  semi-plan  between  the  radii  A  ,!^,  A  5,  and  place  it  fromg-  to  7ion 
the  convex  side  of  Fig.  1 ;  from  the  point;)  in  Fig.  1,  (found  when  obtaining  the  convex 
stretchout,)  draw  a  straight  line  through  n  to  the  base,  and  at  the  pointy,  where  it  meets 
the  base,  erect  the  perpendicular  ^  10,  meeting  the  upper  edge  of  the  falling-mould  at 
10;  on  the  line  A  5  11,  (Fig.  3,)  cut  off  the  part  g  10  equal  to  g  10  in  Fig.  A,  and  from 
the  point  10,  in  the  line  A  5  11,  let  fall  a  perpendicular,  10  lo,  upon  the  rake  line  y  u  in  ; 
with  this  perpendicular  for  radius,  and  from  the  point  10  as  a  centre,  describe  a  circle, 
and  parallel  to  A  5  11,  draw  the  tangent  1  2,  ?<;,  touching  the  circle  (Fig.  6)  at  12,  and 
meeting  the  line  y  h  u  (Fig.  3)  at  zc;  join  the  points  ic,  5,  by  the  line  lo  5,  and  produce 
the  perpendicular  10  to  (Fig.  6)  to  n,  making  the  part  ro  n  equal  to  the  line  ic  5  in  the 
semi-plan,  and  join  n,  11  :  the  line  7i  1 1  will  be  the  governing  ordinate  for  the  face-mould. 
With  this  ordinate  as  radius,  and  from  the  poir.t  5  (Fig.  3)  as  a  centre,  describe  an  arc, 
Cutting  the  line  y  hum  the  point  v,  and  join  v,  5 :  the  line  v  5  will  be  the  directing  ordi- 
nate for  the  semi-plan.     Parallel  to  v  5,  draw  other  ordinates  so  as  to  meet  the  line  yh  u, 
and  also  the  convex  side  of  the  semi-plan,  and  through  the  points  where  they  meet  the 
convex  side,  draw  straight  lines  at  right  angles  to  y  h  u,  producing  them  till  they  meet 
the  rake-line  y  u  w;  from  the  points  where  they  meet  said  rake-line,  draw  the  other 
ordinates  of  the  face-mould,  parallel  to  the  governing  one,  n  11,  and  equal,  each  to  each, 
to  the  corresponding  ordinates  in  the  semi-plan ;  and  you  will  have  the  points  through 
which  to  trace  the  outline  of  the  face-mould,  as  required. 

Fig.  5  is  the  face-mould  for  the  upper  rail-piece,  and  is  found  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  other,  only  that  the  base  from  which  the  heights  are  taken,  is  2  f  (Fig.  2)  instead 
of  /  z.  s  s  and  t  i  are  the  perpendiculars  from  the  base  2  /,  by  which  to  obtain  the  proper 
rake  or  inclination  of  the  upper  face-mould,  and  9  10,  (Fig.  2)  is  the  one  for  finding  the 
point  fur  the  centre  of  the  circle  in  Fig.  5. 

It  will  be  observed,  that  the  face-mould  for  the  lower  rail-piece  (Fig.  6)  is  considerably 
longer  than  the  other,  though  the  semi-plans  for  obtaining  them  are  precisely  alike. 
This  dilVerence  is  owing  to  the  fact,  that,  at  the  junction  of  the  straight  with  the  circular 
part  of  the  rail,  the  lower  rail-piece  inclines  upward  with  a  steeper  slope  than  before, 
while  the  upper  one,  at  its  junction  with  the  straiglit  part,  has  a  gentler  inclination  than 
it  had. 

Fig.  7  represents  the  spring  of  the  plank,  and  is  obtained  by  making  9  iv  (Fig.  7)  equal 
to  9  10  in  Fig.  3,  drawing  the  perpendicular  9  n  (Fig.  7)  equal  to  5  9  in  Fig.  3,  and  join- 
ing n,  10 :  the  angle  9  lo  n  (Fig.  7)  is  called  the  spring  of'  the  plank.  Now  when  the  rail 
pieces  are  cut  out  by  the  face-moulds  at  Fig's.  5  and  (3,  and  bevelled  according  to  Fig"s.  8 
and  9,  if  they  are  placed  over  the  semi-plans  at  their  proper  angle  of  inclination,  and  so 
that  the  points  o,  o,  in  the  centre  of  their  extremities,  shall  be  perpendicularly  over  the 


HAND-RAILING.  63 

lines  St,  s  t,  in  the  semi-plans,  the  several  points  and  lines  in  the  rail-pieces  will  be  ver- 
^tically  over  their  corresponding  points  and  lines  in  the  semi-plans. 

In  the  application  of  the  falling-moulds,  place  that  part  of  the  convex  one  which  ex- 
tends from  s  (Fig.  A)  downward,  upon  the  convex  edge  of  Fig.  6,  (supposing  the  rail 
piece  cut  out,  and  plumb  cuts  made  on  it  according  to  the  pitch-bevels,)  so  that  the 
points  j,  c,  z,  in  the  convex  falling-mould  may,  each  to  each,  coincide  with  the  points 
y,  g,  y,  on  the  convex  edge  of  Fig.  6.  and  the  lines  j,  s,  c,  x,  z,  d,  on  the  falling-mould,  with 
the  piund)  cuts  supposed  to  be  made  across  the  convex  edge  of  Fig.  6  from  the  points 
y,  gi  y,  trace  lines  around  the  edges  of  the  jnould  thus  applied,  and  the  outline  for  the 
convex  side  of  the  I'ail  will  be  obtained.  In  applying  the  concave  falling-mould,  proceed 
in  the  same  way  ;  observing  in  both  cases,  tlie  directions  given  in  plate  XXXIV. 

PL.  37. 

This  Plate  is  precisely  like  the  last,  except  that  the  face  moulds  are  omitted,  and  the 
falling-moulds,  beside  being  located  as  in  that  Plate,  are  laid  down  separately,  that  their 
shape  and  their  diilerent  inclinations  may  be  more  distinctly  perceiv'ed.  An  explanation, 
therefore,  of  the  method  of  drawing  the  falling-mould,  would  be  a  needless  repetition. 

38. 

THE  PLAN  OF  THE    SEMI-CIRCULER  PART  OP  A  RAIL  THAT  SHALL  HAVE  EIGHT  WINDERS  AROUND 
THAT  PART,  BEING  GIVEN,  TO  FIND  THE  FALLING-MOULD  POP  THE  CONVEX  SIDE  OF  THE  RAIL. 

Let  Fig.  1  represent  the  given  plan,  having  portions  of  straight  rail  attached,  and  divide 
the  arc  c  c  g,  and  also  the  stretchout  of  that  arc,  when  obtained,  into  eight  equal  parts; 
obtain  the  stretchout ;  /v,  of  the  convex  side  of  the  plan,  by  the  method  heretofore  de- 
scribed, and  set  it  from  ;  to  k,  on  the  base  in  Fig.  2  ;  at  the  point  k,  in  the  said  basej^^ 
place  the  pitch-board  of  a  common  flyer  in  the  manner  described  in  Plate  XXXVI,  an^^ 
at  the  point  J  in  the  same  base,  erect  a  perpendicular,  j  o,  equal  to  the  whole  height 
of  the  risers  in  the  eight  winding  steps  and  that  of  the  pitch-board  at  the  base,  put  to- 
gether;  at  the  end  o,  of  the  perpendicidar  y  o,  place  a  pitch-board  in  the  position  exhibited 
in  the  figure,  and  join  the  two  pitch-boards  by  the  line  o  o ;  obtain  the  easings  at  the 
angles  o,  o,  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  falling-mould  at  A,  will  be  completed.  Parallel  to 
it,  at  any  distance  determined  upon,  draw  the  upper  edge,  and  you  will  have  the  required 
convex  falling-mould. 

TO  OBTAIN  THE  BUTT-JOINTS  IN  THE  RAMPS  OR  EASINGS. 

Let  the  length,  a  c,  or  b  d,  of  the  straight  part  of  the  rail  in  Fig.  1,  from  k  to  m,  on  the 
base,  and  at  m,  erect  the  perpendicular  m  d,  meeting  the  upper  edge  of  the  falling-mould 
at  d;  on  the  upper  edge  of  said  mould,  set  ofl",  on  each  side  of  (/,  any  equal  distances,  as 
d  a,  d  t,  and  from  the  points  t,  a,  as  centres,  with  the  chord  length  of  ? a  as  radius,  describe 
arcs  cutting  each  other  at  c;  join  the  points  c,  d,  by  the  line  c  d,  and  produce  said  line 
across  the  falling-mould:  the  part  which  crosses  the  mould,  will  give  the  position  of  the 
butt-joints  in  the  lower  ramp.  Find  the  upper  butt-joint  by  the  same  process ;  and  to 
obtain  the  central  one,  l  j,  bisect  h  fin  g,  and  through  g,  draw  i  j,  at  right  angles  to  the 
edges  of  the  mould. 

To  show  the  bverwood  necessary  to  cut  the  central  butt-joint,  ij,  draw  straight  lines 
through  the  points  l,  j,  parallel  to  the  central  line  f  A,  and  cutting  the  plan  (Fig.  1)  in 
the  points  8,  8  :  the  width  intercepted  on  the  plan  between  the  central  line/ A  and  either 
of  the  linesj  8,  i  8,  is  the  width  of  overwood  necessary  for  cutting  the  butt-joint  ij. 


64  HAND-RAILING 

TO  FIND  THE  FACE-MOULD  AT  FIG.  7. 

With  the  exception  of  making  the  height  lines  start  from  the  line  s  t,  (Fig.  3)  insteafi 
of  the  outer  one,  2  h  n,  proceed  exactly  as  in  drawing  Fig.  6,  Plate  XXXVI,  till  you 
have  found  the  point, «*,  in  the  line  A  m  2;  instead  of  describing  a  circle  with  m  for  the 
centre,  as  in  Plate  XXXVI,  draw^  in  o,  at  riglit  angles  to  A  2,  and  meeting  the  rake  line 
2  s  in  the  point  o ;  through  o,  and  parallel  to  A  2,  draw  o  w,  meeting  tlie  line  s  t  (Fig.  3.) 
in  the  point  w,  and  from  lo,  draw  a  straight  line  to  the  point  v,  where  the  line  A  2  cuts 
the  dotted  curve  that  passes  longitudinally  through  the  centre  of  the  semi-plan ;  produce 
the  said  straight  line  both  ways,  so  as  to  meet  the  line  2  h  n,  (Fig.  3)  and  also  ihe  con- 
vex side  of  the  semi-plan,  and  parallel  to  it  as  the  directing  ordinate  for  the  semi-plan, 
draw  other  ordinates,  and  erect  perpendiculars  to  meet  the  rake  line,  as  directed  in 
Plate  XXXVI.  From  the  point  m,  in  the  line  A  2,  let  fall  a  perpendicular,  m,  f,  upon 
the  rake  line  2  s,  and  produce  it  indefinitely  on  the  other  side  of  said  rake  line;  take  the 
distance  %o  v,  intercepted  on  the  directing  ordinate  (Fig.  3)  between  the  line  s  t  and  the 
dotted  curve,  and  from  the  point  o,  (Fig.  7)  as  a  centre,  with  said  intercepted  distance 
as  a  radius,  describe  an  arc  cutting  the  produced  perpendicular,  ic,  t-,  in  v ;  join  o,  v,  and 
the  line  0 17  will  be  the  directing  ordinate  for  the  face-mould,  and  its  extremity  v,  one 
of  the  points  through  which  to  trace  the  concave  edge  of  said  mould.  Complete  Fig.  7 
by  transferring  to  it  the  ordinates  in  Fig.  3,  as  directed  in  the  last  Plate  but  one. 

By  the  same  process,  the  face-mould  for  the  upper  rail-piece  (Fig.  8)  is  obtained;  the 
line  4  x  (Fig.  2)  being  taken  as  a  base,  and  the  line  t  i,  s  s,  being  the  heights  by  which 
to  find  the  proper  inclination  of  the  rake  line. 

Fig.  6,  shews  the  spring  or  bevel  of  the  plank,  at  an  acute  angle,  adapted  to  the  lower 
fail-piece,  and  is  obtained  thus:  draw  any  straight  line,  n  ni,  (Fig.  6)  and  from  it  cut 
olTa  part,  m  ?-,  equal  to  m  r  in  Fig.  7;  at  r,  (Fig.  6)  erect  a  perpendicular  r  v,  equal  to 
^the  part,  u  v,  of  the  line  A  2,  (Fig.  3)  intercepted  between  the  line  s  t  and  the  dotted 
'^^•urve;  join  v  m,  (Fig.  6)  and  the  acute  angle  v  m  r,  shows  the  proper  spring  of , the  plank 
for  the  lower  rail-piece.  In  a  similar  manner,  obtain,  from  Fig's.  4  and  8,  the  bevel  of  the 
plank  at  an  obtuse  angle,  as  shown  by  the  angle  v  r  ]f,  in  Fig.  5. 

In  the  application  of  the  falling-mould  A,  proceed  as  directed  in  Plate  XXXIV ;  making 
d  X,  in  the  upper  edge  of  the  mould,  coincide  with  2  2,  at  the  lower  end  of  the  convex 
side  of  Fig.  7,  and  s,  in  the  mould,  witii  8,  on  the  convex  side  of  Fig.  7  and  bending 
the  mould  round  the  convex  edge  of  the  rail-piece,  as  heretofore  described. 

In  applying  the  pitch-bevels  to  the  plank,  when  getting  out  rail-pieces,  let  the  stocks 
of  the  bevels  coincide  with  that  edge  of  the  plank  represented  by  the  rake  line  2  s,  in 
Fig's.  7  and  8,  and  let  their  blades  fall  across  the  thickness  of  the  plank,  so  as  to  have 
the  plumb  cuts  parallel  to  the  perpendiculars  raised  from  the  semi-plan. 

PL.  39. 

In  this  Plate,  the  falling-moulds  are  adapted  to  a  stair  having  ten  winders  around  the 
semi-circular  part  of  the  rail,  and  instead  of  running  parallel  to  the  nosing  line,  as  they 
ordinarily  do,  they  are  drawn  so  as  to  have,  at  the  perpendicular  height  of  one  riser  above 
the  centre  g,  (see  Fig.  2)  a  horizontal  distance  from  the  nosing  line  equal  to  the  width 
of  one  tread  or  step,  as  at  h;  while,  at  the  second  nosing  below  the  centre,  they  cut  the 
nosing  line,  as  at  id.  It  is  thought  by  some,  that  the  hand  can  glide  more  easily  up  or 
down  a  rail  of  this  shape,  than  over  those  which  are  parallel  to  the  nosing  line.  The 
mode  of  drawing  the  convex  mould  at  Fig.  2,  is  as  follows.  Having  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  preceding  plates,  obtained  the  convex  stretchout^'  /.,  erected  the  perpendicular  j  o, 
(equal  to  the  combined  height  of  the  lower  pitch-board  and  ten  risers,)  placed  the  upper 
and  lower  pitch-boards,  and  joined  them  by  the  hypothenuse   o  o,  erect  the  central 


HAND-RAILING.  65 

perpendicular  ef^  and  set  the  height  of  a  riser  from  g  to  A,  on  the  isaid  perpendicular  ; 
through  the  point  A,  thus  found,  and  the  point  tc,  at  the  second  nosing  below  ^,  draw  a 
straight  line,  and  produce  said  line,  as  also  the  sides  to, to,  of  the  upper  and  lower  pitch- 
boards,  till  they  meet  the  points  r,  r;  obtain  the  easings  at  the  angles  ?•,  r,  and  parallel 
to  the  lower  edge,  t  lo  h  t,  thus  completed,  draw  the  upper  one,  d  s  s,  and  you  will  have 
the  required  convex  lalling-  mould. 

Proceed  in  the  same  way,  in  drawing  the  falling-mould  for  the  concave  side  of  the  rail. 

Fig's.  5  and  6  represent  tlie  face-moulds  for  the  upper  and  lower  rail-pieces,  and  Fig's. 
4  and  3;  the  semi-plans  from  which  they  are  obtained.  The  several  steps  of  the  process 
by  which  they  are  obtained,  correspond  exactly  with  those  detailed  in  plate  XXXVI, 
and  render  a  formal  explanation  quite  unnecessary.  As  in  Plate  XXXVI,  the  lines 
m  (I,  8  s,  t  i,  5  s,  (Plate  XXXIX,  Fig.  2,)  are  those  by  which  the  respective  inclinations 
of  the  rake-lines  are  determined ;  and  the  lines  9  10,  9  10,  at  the  upper  and  lower  parts 
of  the  elevation,  are  those  by  which  the  centres  of  the  circles  in  Fig's.  5  and  6  are  ascer- 
tained. To  obtain  the  last  named  lines,  make  the  arcs  ^  n,  ^  j?,  on  the  convex  side 
of  Fig.  1,  each  equal  to  the  arc  g  n  on  the  convex  side  of  Fig.  .3,  and  from  the  pointy, 
(Fig.  1)  draw  straight  lines  through  the  points  n,  n  to  the  stretchout  j  k ;  at  the  points 
7n,  m,  where  the  said  straight  lines  meet ;'  A',  erect  perpendiculai's,  and  produce  them  till 
they  meet  the  upper  edge  of  the  convex  falling-mould :  the  parts  9  10,  9  10,  intercepted 
between  the  upper  edge  of  said  mould  and  the  respective  bases  jt,  5  t,  are  the  lines 
required. 

The  lines  5  n,  5  w,  (Fig's.  3  and' 6)  are  respectively,  the  governing  ordinates  for  the 
semi-plan  and  face-mould,  and  are  obtained  precisely  as  in  Plate  XXXVI. 

The  .spring  of  the  plank  is  represented  by  the  angle  9  to  n,  in  the  semi-plan  at  Fig.  o. 

PL.  40. 

This  plate  exhibits  the  plan,  and  the  face  and  falling  moulds  of  an  elliptical  stair.  The 
plan  (Fig.  1)  is  by  means  of  chords,  divided  into  as  many  parts  as  there  are  to  be  pieces 
in  the  rail,  and  upon  these  chords,  height  lines  (taken  from  the  elevation)  and  perpendi- 
culars are  erected,  the  rake  lines  and  ordinates  are  drawn,  and  the  face-moulds  Fig's.  3, 
4,  and  5)  completed,  just  as  in  the  foregoing  plates,  except  that  the  ordinates  are  at  right 
angles  to  the  rake  lines.  (Fig.  6  is  a  face-mould,  with  its  ordinates  drawn  so  as  to  form 
an  oblique  angle  with  the  rake  line,  and  be  adapted  to  -the  spring  of  the  plank ;  and 
Fig.  7  represents  the  said  spring  or  bes^el.) 

The  triangle  b  a  c,  (Fig.  12)  represents  a  square  step  or  flyer,  and  the  line  c  d  f,  repre- 
sents a  portion  of  floor  at  the  top  of  the  first  flight  of  steps.  The  line  d  e,  intercepted 
between  said  floor  line  and  the  under  edge  of  the  convex  falling-mould,  is  equal  the  half 
of  a  c,  that  is,  half  the  height  of  a  riser;  and  the  rail,  after  reaching  that  elevation  above 
the  floor,  will  pass  on  horizontally  till  it  reaches  the  foot  of  the  second  flight. 

PL.  4L 

In  this  plate,  Fig,  1  is  the  plan  of  an  elliptical  stair,  and  Fig.  4,  a  section  or  semi-ele- 
vation of  the  same.  Fig.  3  represents  a  bearer  for  supporting  the  winders  ;  of  which 
bearers  Fig.  2  is  the  plan.  Fig.  3  is  obtained  in  the  folloAving  maner  : — At  the  point  c, 
where  the  lower  side  of  the  plan  (Fig.  2)  meets  the  elliptical  wall,  erect  a  perpendicular, 
c  9,  equal  to  the  height  or  stretchout  of  the  risers  in  as  many  winding  steps  as  tlie  bearer 
is  intended  to  support ;  divide  said  perpendicular  into  as  many  equal  parts  as  there  are 
risers  in  said  step.s,  and  at  the  points  of  division,  1,  2,  &c.,  erect  perpendiculars  of  any 
length  ;  at  the  point  c,  c,  &c.,  where  the  lines  representing  the  division  of  the  steps  cut 
the  lower  side  of  Fig.  2,  erect  perpendiculars,  and  produce  them  till  they  meet,  each 

17 


66 


HAND-RAILING. 


with  each,  their  corresponding  perpendiculars  erected  on  ca:  from  the  points  o,  a  &c., 
where  they  meet,  set  off,  on  tlie  perpendiculars  from  Fig.  2,  the  parts  a,  a,  a,  a,  &,c.  each 
equal  to  a  a  in  the  semi-elevation  at  Fig.  4,  and  through  the  lower  points  a,  a,  &c.  thus 
obtained,  trace  the  curve  for  the  under  edge  of  the  bearer.  The  parallel  straight  lines 
on  either  side  of  this  curve,  shew  the  width  of  stuff  requisite  for  getting  out  the  bearer. 
It  will  be  be  perceived,  that,  in  its  ultimate  position,  that  is,  when  raised  up  at  right 
angles  to  its  plan,  the  several  parts  of  Fig.  3  will  be  in  a  vertical  range  with  the  several 
parts  of  Fig.  2.  The  method  of  placing  bearers  exhibited  in  this  Plate,  possesses 
decided  advantages  over  the  old  and  common  mode,  as  it  regards  both  time  and  expense, 
and  it  is  recommended  to  the  notice  of  such  stair-builders  as  have  not  already  put  it  in 
practice. 

PL.  42. 

This  Plate  exhibits  the  plans  and  elevations  of  the  front  and  back  strings  of  a  circular 
stair.  The  arc  A  (Fig.  I)  represents  the  plan  of  the  front  string,  or  string  adjacent  to 
the  opening,  and  C,  the  plan  of  the  string  contiguous  to  the  wall,  B  and  ])  are  the 
stretchouts  of  said  arcs,  and  the  several  divisions  in  them  correspond,  in  location,  with 
the  several  divisions  made  in  A  and  C  by  the  dotted  radii,  which,  from  the  centre  O, 
pass  through  the  front  of  each  step  to  the  plan  of  the  back  string.  In  the  plans  A  and  C, 
a,  h,  c,  Sic.  represent  the  wedges  supposed  to  be  inserted  on  the  convex  side  of  the  two 
stair-strings,  and  made  to  penetrate  to  a  greater  or  less  depth,  and  to  be  a  greater  or  less 
distance  apart,  according  to  the  greater  or  less  extent  of  the  circles  in  which  the  strings 
are  spirally  to  wind.  In  tiiis  example,  the  wedges  in  the  front  string  are  made  to  reach 
to  within  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  (see  the  scale  at  bottom)  of  the  concave  side,  and 

be  about  seven-eighths  of  an  inch  apart ;  while  those  in  the  back  string,  only  come 
ithin  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the  concave  side,  and  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter 
apart.  The  wedges  may  be  shorter  and  further  apart  in  the  back  string  than  in  the 
other  for  the  reason  that  the  back  string  Avinds  in  a  larger  circle  than  the  front  one,  and 
of  course  has  a  less  prominent  curvature.  The  depth  to  which  the  wedges  penetrate 
and  their  distance  apart,  must  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  workman.  Care  must  be 
taken  that  they  be  not  too  far  apart,  for  if  Ihey  are,  the  concave  sides  of  the  stair-strings 
will  present  a  succession  of  plane  surfaces  and  angles,  instead  of  that  regular  curvature 
which  they  are  intended  to  exhibit. 

•Fig's  2  and  3  represent  the  elevation  of  the  front  and  back  strings  and  are  obtained 
by  a  process  so  very  similar  to  that  by  which  tlie  falling-moulds  in  the  preceding  plates 
are  found,  that  no  explanation  will  be  necessary. 

In  Fig.  2,  c  represents  a  separate  piece,  intended  for  insertion,  at  its  upper  edge,  into  a 
groove  to  be  made  in  the  under  edge  of  the  front  string,  after  it  has  bent  to  its  true  shape 
and  has  become  entirely  dry.  In  the  same  way  a  separate  piece  may  be  inserted  into  a 
groove  in -the  upper  edge  of  the  back  string  at  Fig.  3.  The  line  a  (Fig.  3)  shews  the 
width  of  the  skirting  when  got  out  separately,  and  the  line  h  is  the  width  of  the  back 
string  and  skirting,  when  tliey  are  got  out  in  one  piece.  When  got  out  in  one  piece, 
channels  or  mortices  are  made  in  it,  for  admitting  the  ends  of  the  treads  and  risers. 
Whether  the  string  be  mortised  for  inserting  the  ends  of  the  steps,  or  whether  it  be 
notched,  a  pitch-board  must  be  applied  to  it,  and.  lines  traced  for  the  treads  and  risers ; 
but  the  places  for  the  ends  of  the  steps  must  not  be  cut  out  until  the  string  is  bent, 
wedged,  and  dried. 

To  give  the  strings  of  a  circular  stair  their  proper  curvature  and  spiral  twist,  make,  for 
each  string,  a  cylindrical  block,  that  is,  make  two  frames  with  battens  or  narrow  strips 
of  boards  nailed  on  longitudinally  and  Touuded  off  at  the  outer  edges,  so  that  each  frame 


GRECIAN   ARCHITECTURji.  67 

shall,  following  the  outline  of  the  battens,  be  cylindrical,  and  have  the  respective  curva- 
tures of  the  circular  wall  and  well-hole.  Around  these  cylindrical  frames  bend  your  stair 
strings,  gluing  in  the  wedges  as  you  proceed,  and,  if  you  please,  gluing  a  piece  of  coarse 
canvass  over  the  wedges. 

Note. — In  making  the  apertures  for  the  w'eJges  on  the  convex  side  of  the  strings  at      # 
Fig's.  2  and  3,  care  must  be  taken  to  cut  ihem  at  right  angles  to  the  stretchout  D,  (or 
any  other  horizontal  line,)  instead  of  cutting  them  at  right  angles  to  thP edges  of  the 
elevations. 

PL.  43. 

OF  THE  CHORAGIC  MONUMENT' OP  THRASSYLLtfS. 

(From  Stewart's  Antiquities.) 

Just  above  the  place  on  which  I  have  supposed  the  Odeum  of  Pericles  to  have  been 
built,  there  is,  in  the  rock  of  the  Acropolis,  a  cavern  or  grotto,  the  entrance  into  which  is 
fronted,  and  completely  closed  up  by  the  building  here  treated  of  The  cavern  is  now  a 
christian  church,  called  the  Panagia  Speliottissa,  or  the  Blessed  Lady  of  the  Grotto.  On 
the  front  of  the  building  are  three  inscriptions,  recording  victories  obtained  either  in  the 
^  Odeum  or  in  the  theatre,  which  prove  it  to  have  been  a  Choragic  monument ;  not  indeed 
so  highly  ornamented  as  the  monument  of  Lysiocrates,  but  wrought  nevertheless  with 
great  accuracy,  and  deserving  our  notice  both  for  the  singuiarity  of  its  composition  and 
the  form  of  its  mouldings.  Besides  which  I  must  observe,  that  the  mutilated  statue  yet 
remaining  on  it  is  the  work  of  an  excellent  sculptor.  There  were  inscriptions  cut  on  tho^^^ 
middle  of  the  architrave.  ^^^ 

This  is  the  most  ancient  of  the  three  inscriptions  above-mentioned,  as  Wheler  and^^^ 
Spon  have  already  observed,  and  w^as  doubtless  made  when  the  monument  was  tirst 
erected.  By  it  we  learn,  that  "  Thrasyllus,  the  son  of  Thrasyllus  of  Deceleia,  (a  demos 
or  township  of  the  tribe  of  Hippothoon,)  dedicates  this  building,  having  been  at  the  ex- 
pense of  exhibiting. the  games,  in  wdiich,  with  the  men  of  his  own  tribe,  he  obtained  the 
victory ;  that  Evius  of  Chalcis  was  the  musician ;  and  Karchidamus  the  son  of  Sotis 
composed  the  piece,  Neaechmus  being  Archon."  This  was  in  the  first  year  of  the  115tli 
Olympiad,  or  about  318  years  before  the  Christian  era ;  so  that  this  building  was  erect^ 
above  two  thousand  j^ears  ago.  ^ 

The  other  two  inscriptions  record  victories  of  the  same  kind  with  the  former,  obtained 
about  fifty  years  afterwards,  when  Pytharatus  was  Archon.  The  following  is  on  the  left 
hand,  or  towards  the  west: 

The  people  gave  the  games,  Pytharatas  was  Archon, 
Thrasycles  the  son  of  Thrassyllus,  a  Decelian,  was  Agonothetes, 
The  boys  of  the  tribe  of  Hippotoon  got  the  victory, 
Theon  the  Theban  performed  on  the  flute, 
Pronomus  the  ^Tlieban  composed  the  piece. 


& 


Pronomus  was  a  celebrated  musicia^tf  Thebes,  refnarkable  for  having  a  great  beard. 
He  was  contemporary  with  Aristophanes,  who  took  occasion  to  scoff  at  Agyrrhius,  an 
Athenian  magistrate,  ludicrously  siipposiug  he  had  borrowed  his  beard  from  Pronomus. 
As  the  piece  wiiich  gained  the  prize  in  these  games  was  composed  by  a  musician,  it 
seems  to  prove  that  the  inscription  relates  rather  to  a  musical  than  a  dramatic  perform- 
ance; and  that  the  victory  it  records  was  obtained  in  the  Odeum,  not  in  the  theatre.  It 
is  also  to  be  remarked  that  these  games  were  given  more  than  a  hundred  years  after  the 


68  GRECIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

time  when  Aristophanes  made  free  with  our  musician's  beard :  may  we  not  therefore 
conclude,  that  on  this  occasion,  long  after  his  decease,  some  favorite  composition  of  his 
was  performed  with  great  applause?  Nor  shall  we  find  this  to  have  been  without  a 
precedent ;  for  by  what  Pausanius  relates  to  have  happened  at  the  rebuilding  of  the 
walls  of  Messene,  in  the  third  year  of  the  102d  Olympiad,  ii  appears  there  were  at  the 
time  two  pty^ies  among  the  frequenters  of  musical  entertainments,  some  deciding  in 
favour  of  PrOTiomus,  while  others  continued  to  prefer  the  more  ancient  compositions 
of  Sacadas,  a  musician  of  Argos,  then  doubtless  many  years  dead,  for  he  had  gained  a 
prize  at  the  Pythian  games  in  the  48th  Olympiad  :  and  although  the  works  of  his  anta- 
gonist had  long  enjoyed  a  great  reputation,  Pronomus  appears  to  have  had  the  suflrages 
of  a  majority  in  his  favour. 

PL.  44, 

OF  THE  TEMPLE  OF  THESEUS. 
(From  Stewart's  Antiquities.) 

The  travellers  who  have  visited  the  city  of  Athens,  and  the  authors  who  have  de- 
scribed its  antiquities,  all  agree,  that  this  Doric  Temple,  one  of  the  noblest  rernains  of  its 
ancient  magnificencie,  and  at  present  the  most  entire,  was  built  in  honour  of  Theseus.. 
This  6pinion  is  abundantly  justified  by  the  sculptures  in  some  of  the  metopes,  for, 
mutilated  as  they  are,  it  is  evident  that'  several  of  the  exploits  of  the  hero  are  there 
represented. 

Nor  can  it  be  doubted,  that  this  is  the  temple  which  both  Plutach  and  Pausanius  place 
ear  the  Gymnasium  of  Ptolemy ;  great  remains  of  that  Gymnasium  are  yet  standing, 
and  their  situation  in  regard  to  this  temple  agrees  exactly  with  the  information  those 
authors  have  left  us. 

On  what  occasion  Theseus  was  thus  honored,  we  are  taught  by  the  above-mentioned 
authors.  Plutarch  particularly,  after  recounting  his  heroic  deeds,  and  the  ingratitude 
of  the  factious  Athenians  towards  him,  with  his  banishment  and  death,  says,  "In  after- 
times,  several  motives  concurring,  the  Athenians  honored  him  as  a  hero.  Many  of  those 
who  fought  against  the  Medes  at  Marathon,  imagined  they  saw  his  apparition  in  com- 
^te  armour,  rushing  before  them  on  the  enemy.  After  the  conclusion  of  the  Median 
war,  Pha'don  being  archon,  the  Athenians  consulting  the  oracle,  the  Pythian  priestess 
answered,  that  they  should  bring  back  the  bones  of  Theseus,  deposite  them  honourably 
in  their  city,  and  with  a  religious  observance  keep  them  >there." 

This  was  accomplished  when  Cimon,'  the  son  of  Miltiades,  had  conquered  Scyros ; 
there,  after  a  diligent  search,  he  discovered  the  venerable  remains  of  the  hero,  of  superior 
stature,  with  the  brazen  point  of  a  spear,  and  a  sword  lying  by  him  ;  (these  weapons  in 
the  heroic  age  were  of  brass;)  and  having  embarked  them  on  board  his  ship,  he  carried 
them  to  Athens,  where  they  wece  received  by  the  citizens  with  splendid  processions  and 
sacrifices,  as  if  the  hero  himself  had  returned  to  visit  tliem.  His  remains  were  deposited 
in  the  middle  of  the  city,  near  the'present  Gymnasium. 

Nor  was  this  all ;  festivals  were  instituted,  and  games  celebrated,  in  honour  of  the 
event ;  and  on  this  occasion,  has  it  has  been  generally  supposed,  liappencd  that  famous 
contest  between  vEschylus  and  Sophocles,  two  competitors  for  dramatic  glory,  who,  since 
that  time,  if  we  except  Euripides,  have  hardly  either  of  them,  had  a  rival :  the  victory 
was  adjudged  to  Sophocles,  and  his  high-spirited  antagonist,  unable  to  support  the  dis- 
grace, or  submit  to  the  decision  of  his  judges,  left  his  country,  and  passed  into  Sicily  a 
voluntary   exile.     This  was  transacted,   we   are  told   by  Plutarch,  in   the  year  that 


GRECIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  ^9 

Apliepsion  was  arclion,  which  the  best  autliorities  place  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  seventy- 
seventh  Olympiad,  4G7  before  Christ;  that  is,  exactly  forty  years  before  the  death 
of  Pericles,  or  precisely  at  the  time  when  he  began  to  acquire  popularity  and  power  in 
Athens  :  so  that  this  temple  may  well  be  accounted  a  work  of  the  age  of  Pericles. 

It  is  built  of  Pentelic  marble,  and  in  the  language  of  Vitruvius,  is  a  Peripteros.  The 
pruicipal  front  faces  the  east;  and  the  pedini^ent  of  that  front  appears  to  have  been 
adorned,  like  those  of  the  Parthenon,  with  figures  of  entire  relief,  fixed  in  their  places  by 
cramps  ol"  metal ;  for  on  the  fcice  of  this  pediment  remain  several  holes,  in  which  the  ends 
of  those  cramps  have  been  inserted,  though  the  figures  they  supported  are  all  of  them 
destroyed. 

On  the  metopes  in  this  eastern  front,  are  represented  ten  of  the  labours  of  Hercules ; 
and  on  the  four  metopes  next  that  front,  both  on  the  northern  and  southern  sides,  are 
eight  of  the  achievements  of  Theseus.  It  will  appear  the  less  extraordinary,  that  the 
labours  of  Hercules  should  make  so  considerable  a  part  of  the  ornaments  of  this  temple, 
when  we  recollect  the  respect  and  gratitude  which  Theseus  professed  to  that  hero,  who 
was  his  kinsman,  had  delivered  him  from  a  tedious  captivitv,  and  had  restored  him  to 
his  country ;  on  his  return  to  which,  he  consecrated  to  Hercules  all  the  places  that  the 
gratitude  of  his  citizens  had  formerly  dedicated  to  himself,  four  only  excepted;  and 
changed  their  names  from  Thesea  to  Heracleia,  Nor  could  it  be  esteemed  a  slight  com- 
pliment to  Theseus,  Avhen  on  building  this  temple  to  his  honour,  their  labours  were  thus 
placed  together.  The  remainder  of  the  metopes,  and  the  pediment  of  the  Posticum,  or 
western  front,  have  never  been  adorned  with  sculptures. 

It  is  now  a  church  dedicated  to  St.  George,  for  Avhom  the  present  Athenians  have  as 
high  a  veneration  as  their  ancestors  had  for  Theseus  ;  aud  to  this  we  probably  owe  that 
it  is  not  in  a  more  ruinous  condition.     It  seems  scarcely  worth  mentioning,  that  M]^» 
Vernon,  who  visited  Athens  in  the  year  1675,  and  Dr.  Spon,  with  Sir  George  Whele^^ 
who  came  there  early  in  the  following  year,  have  written  theirnames  on  the  wall  within 
the  temple;  their  example  has  been  followed  by  several  other  travellers  of  distinction. 

PLATES  45,  52,  and  53. 

THE  DORIC  ORDER  OP  THE  TEMPLE  OP  MINERVA,  OIALLED  THE  PARTHENON  AND  HECATOMPEDON. 

(From  Slewait's  Antiquities  of  Athens. )  ^ 

This  temple  was  built  during  the  administration  of  Pericles,  who  employed  Callicrates 
and  Ictinus  as  architects,  under  Phidias,  to  whom  he  committed  the  direction  of  all  works 
of  elegance  and  magnificence. 

It  has  been  celebrated  by  some  of  the  most  eminent  writers  of  antiquity,  whose  ac- 
counts are  confirmed  and  illustrated  in  the  description's  given  us  by  those  travellers,  who 
saw  it  almost  entire  in  the  last  century.  Even  in  its  present  state,  the  spectator  on  ap- 
proaching it,  will  find  himself  not  a  little  affected  by  so  solelnn  an  appearance  of  ruined 
grandeur.  Accustomed  as  we  were  to  the  ancient  and  modern  magnificence  of  Rome, 
and  by  what  we  had  heard  and  read,  impressed  witli.  a.n  advantageous  opinion  of  Avhat 
we  were  come  to  see,  we,  found  the  image,  our  fancy  had  pre-conceived,  greatly  inferior 
to  the  real  object.  , 

When  Sir  George  Wheler  and  Dr.  Spon  visited  Athens  in  the  year  1676,  tliis  temple 
was  entire  ;  and  the  former  has  given  the  following  description  of  it  : 

"  It  is  situated  about  the  middle  of  the  citadel,  and  consists  altogether  of  admirable 
white  marble.  The  plane  of  it  is  above  twice  as  long  as  it  is  broad;  being  217  feet  9 
inches  long,  and  98  feet  6  inches  broad..   It  hath  an  ascent  every  way  of  five^'degrees  or 


70 


GRECIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 


Steps;  which  seem  to  be  so  contrived,  to  serve  as  a  basis  to  the  portico,  which  is  supr 
ported  by  channelled  pillars  of  the  Doric  order,  erected  round  upon  them,  without  any 
other  basis.  These  pillars  are  46  in  number,  being  eight  to  the  front,  and  as  many 
behind,  and  17  on  each  side,  counting  the  four  corner  ones  twice  over  to  be  deducted. 
They  are  42  feet  high  and  17^  feet  about.  The  distance  from  pillar  to  pillar  is  7  feet  4 
inches.  This  portico  beareth  up  a  front,  and  frieze  romid  about  the  temple,  charged  Avith 
historical  figures  of  admirable  beauty  and  work.  The  figures  of  the  front,  Avhich  the 
ancients  called  the  eagle,  appear,  though  from  that  height,  of  the  natural  bigness  ;  being 
in  entire  relievo,  and  wonderfully  well  carved.  Pausanius  saith  no  more  of  them,  than, 
that  they  concern  the  birth  of  the  goddess  Minerva.  What  I  observed  and  remembered, 
of  them,  is  this : 

"  There  is  a  figure  that  stands  in  the  middle  of  it,  having  its  right  arm  broken,  which 
probably  held  the  thunder.  Its  legs  straddle  at  some  distance  from  each  other,  where 
without  doubt  was  placed  the  eagle;  for  its  beard  and  the  majesty  which  the  sculptor 
hath  expressed  in  his  countenance,  although  those  other  usual  characters  be  wanting 
here,  do  sulEciently  shew  it  to  have  been  made  for  Jupiter.  He  stands  naked,  for  so  he 
was  usually  represented,  especially  by  the  Greeks.  At  his  right  hand  is  another  figure, 
with  its  hands  and  arms  broken  ofl[',  covered  down  half  way  the  legs,  in  a  posture  as 
coming  towards  Jupiter ;  which,  perhaps  was  a  Victory,  leading  the  horses  of  the  tri- 
umphant chariot  of  Minerva  which  follows  it.  The  horses  are  made  with  such  great 
art,  that  the  sculptor  seems  to  have  out-done  himself,  by  giving  them  a  more  than  seeming 
life,  such  a  vigour  is  expressed  in  each  posture  of  their  prancing  and  stamping,  natural 
to  generous  horses.  Minerva  is  next  repr  esented  in  the  chariot,  rather  as  the  goddess 
of  learning  than  of  wiir,  Avithout  helmet,  buckler,  or  a  Medusa's  Head  on  her  breast. 
"Jext  behind  her  is  another  figure  of  a  woman  sitting  with  her  head  broken  off;  Avho  it 
ras  is  not  certain.  But  my  companion  made  me  observe  the  next  two  figures,  sitting  in 
the  cornel",  to  be  of  the  Emperor  Adrian  and  his  Empress  Sabina,  whom  I  easily  knew 
to  be  so,  by  the  many  medals  and  statues  I  have  seen  of  them.  At  the  left  hand  of  Jupiter 
are  five  or  six  other  figures ;  my  companion  taketh  them  to  be  an  assembly  of  the  gods, 
where  Jupiter  introduceth  Minerva,  and  owneth  her  for  his  daughter.  The  postick,  or 
hind-front,  was  adorned  with  figures,  expressing  Minerva's  contest  with  Neptune  about 
naming  the  city  of  Athens  ;  but  now  all  of  them  are  fallen  down,  only  part  of  a  sea-horse 
excepted.  The  architrave  is  also  charged  Avith  a  basso-relieAO  af,  several  distances, 
divided  into  squares  of  about  tAA^o  or  tlu'ee  feet  broad,  and  three  or  four  feet  high.  Within 
tlie  portico  on  high,  and  on  the  outside  of  the  cella  of  the  temple  itself,  is  another  border 
of  basso-relievo  round  about  it,  or  at  least  on  the  north  and  south  sides,  which,  without 
doubt,  is  as  ancient  as  the  temple,  and  of  admirable  work ;  but  not  so  liigh  a  relievo  as 
the  other.  Thereon  are  represented  sacrifices,  processions,  and  other  ceremonies  of  the 
heathens'  worship.  Most  of  them  Avere  designed  by  the  Marquis  De  Nointel ;  Avho  em- 
ployed a  painter  to  do  it  tVA^o  months  together,  and  sheAved  them  to  us,  Avhen  we  Avaited 
on  him  at  Constantinople.  The  cella  of  the  temple  without  is  158  feet  long,  and  broad 
67  feet.  Before  you  enter  into  the  body  of  the  Temple  from  the  front,  is  the  Pronaos, 
whose  roof  is  sustained  by  six  channelled  pillars  of  the  same  order  and  bigness  Avith 
those  of  tiie  portico,  and  contains  near  the  third  part  of  the  cella ;  to  Avit,  44  feet  of  the 
length.  We  observed  in  place  of  one  of  the  pillars,  a  great  pile  of  stone  and  lime,  ol'  most 
rude  Avork ;  which  tli'ey  told  us  the  Kisler-Haga  had  ordered  to  be  so  done  to  help  to 
support  the  roof ;  because  he  could  ncAcr  find  a  stone  big  enough  to  supply  the  place 
of  the  old  pillar  broken  down,  although  he  had  spent  tAVO  thousand  croAvns  to  do  it. — 
From  the  Pronaos  we  entered  into  the  temple  by  a  long  door  in  the  middle  of  the  front. 
But  my  companion  and  I  Avcre  not  so  much  surprised  Avitli  the  obscurity  of  it,  as 
Monsieur  Guiliter  ;  becase  th^  observations  Ave  had  made  on  other  heathen  temples  did 


GRECIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  71 

make  it  no  new  thing  to  us.  When  the  Christians  consecrated  it  to  serve  God  in,  they 
let  in  the  light  at  the  east  end,  which  is  all  that  it  yet  hath  ;  and  not  only  that,  but  made 
a  semi-circle  for  the  Holy-place,  according  to  their  rites;  which  the  Turks  have  not  yet 
much  altered.  This  was  separated  from  the  rest  by  jasper  pillars,  two  of  which  on  each 
side  yet  remain.  Within  tliis  chancel  is  a  canopy  sustained  by  four  porphyry  pillars, 
with  beautifuUwhite  marble  chapters  of  the  Corinthian  order:  but  the  holy  table  under 
it  is  removed.  Beyond  the  canopy  are  two  or  three  degrees  one  above  another  in  a  semi- 
circle, where  the  bishop  and  presbyters  used  to  sit  in  time  of  communion,  upon  certain 
solemn  days.  The  bishop  sat  in  a  marble  chair  above  the  rest ;  which  yet  remaineth 
>  above  the  degrees,  against  the  window.  On  both  sides  and  towards  the  door,  is  a  kind 
of  gallery,  made  with  two  ranks  of  pillars,  twenty-two  below,  and  twenty-three  above ; 
the  odd  pillar  is  over  the  arcii  of  the  entrance,  which  was  left  for  the  passage.  They 
shewed  us  the  place  where  two  orange-trees  of  marble  had  stood,-  which  being  taken 
thence  to  be  caiTied  to  Constantinople,  the  vessel  miscarried  with  them.  The  roof  over 
the  altar  and  choir,  added  to  the  temple  by  the  Greeks,  hath  tl>e  picture  of  the  Holy 
Virgin  on  it,  of  Mosaic  work,  left  yet  by  the  Turks.  This  temple  was  covered  outwardly 
with  great  planks  of  stone,  of  which  some  are  fallen  down,  and  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
Mosque." 

Thus  far  Sir  George  Wheler,  who  has  copied  this  account  from  Dr.  Spon,  and  added 
to  it  some  mistakes  of  his  own,  which  I  have  omitted.  Dr.  Spon  tells  us  the  measures 
were  taken  in  French  feet ;  therefore  reckoning  the  diameters  of  the  columns  5jW  such 
feet,  the  extent  of  the  front  between  the  outer  surfaces  of  the  angular  columns,  reduced 
to  English  measure^  will  be  found  nearly  102  feet  two  inches,  that  of  the  side  225  feet 
10^  inches.  But  measures  obtained  by  girting  the  circumferences  of  columns  are  little 
to  be  depended  on. 

In  the  year  1687  Athens  was  besieged  by  the  Venetians,  under  the  command  of  the 
Proveditore  Morosini  and  Count  Koningsmark  ;  when  an  unlucky  bomb,  falling  on  this 
admirable  structure,  reduced  it  to  the  state  in  which  we  saw  it. 

In  our  Avay  to  it  from  the  city,  we  passed  by  the  theatre  of  Bacchus,  and  came  to  the 
propyla^a,  which  are  miserably  ruined,  and  thence  through  a  street  of  scattered  houses 
to  the  western  front  of  the  temple,  the  majestic  appearance  of  which  cannot  easily  be 
described. 

On  this  front  the  wall  with  their  antae,  and  all  the  columns  of  the  portico,  with  their 
entablature  and  pediment,  are  standing;  and  the  architecture  has  suffered  little  ;  but  the 
sculptures  in  the  metopes,  and  the  figures  in  the  pediment,  are  defaced  and  ruined. 

The  columns  of  the  portico  stand  on  a  pavement,  raised  three  steps  above  the  ground  ; 
and  there  are  two  more  from  the  portico  to  the  pronaos  (or  rather  posticum,  for  the 
pronaos  was  in  reality  at  the  opposite  front;)  from  this  there  is  another  step,  little  more 
than  an  inch  in  height,  into  the  temple ;  so  inconsiderable  a  rise  has  occasioned  this  step 
to  remain  hitherto  unnoticed. 

The  inside  of  the  temple  was  divided  by  a  cross  wail;  and  the  lesser  division,  the 
pavement  of  which  is  level  with  the  top  of  the  little  step  last  mentioned,  is  the  part  into 
which  you  first  enter  ;  Wheler  and  Spon  have  called  it  improperly  the  pronaos. 

This  was  undoubtedly  the  opisthodomus,  where  the  public  treasure  was  kept.  Here 
the  columns,  mentioned  by  those  travellers,  are  no  longer  remaining ;  but  part  of  the 
rude  mass,  said  to  have  been  erected  by  a  Kisler-Aga,  is  still  to  be  seen.  Hence  you 
pass  into  the  greater  division  ;  at  the  western  end  of  which,  and  on  both  the  sides,  "the 
pavement  of  the  opisthodomus  is  continued  on  the  same  level,  to  about  15  feet  from  the 
walls,  enclosing  an  area  sunk  a  little  more  than  an  inch  below  it.  Near  the  edge  of  the 
little  step  down  into  this  area  are  still  to  be  seen,  distinctly  traced,  certain' circles  ;  on 
these  doubtless  the  columns  of  the  pe.ristyle  were  placed,- which -supported  the  galkries 


72  GRECIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

mentioned  by  Wheler  ;  at  present  not  only  those  galleries  are  entirely  destroyed,  but  the 
walls  of  this  .part,  with  fourteen  of  the  columns  of  the  peripteros,  are  no  longer  standing  ; 
and  the  pavement  is  strewed  with  pieces  of  sculpture,  some  of  which  are  very  large,  and 
all  of  them  of  excellent  workmanship. 

In  this  division  stood  the  famous  statue  of  JNIinerva,  of  ivory  and  gold,  the  work 
of  Phidias.  Pausanias  says,  it  was  standing  erect,  her  garment  reaching  tp  her  feet ;  she 
had  a  helmet  on,  and  a  3Iedusa's  Head  on  her  breast ;  in  one  hand  she  held  a  spear,  and 
on  the  other  stood  a  victory  of  about  four  cubits  high.  Pliny  tells  us  the  statue  was 
twenty-six  cubits  high,  in  which  he  perhaps  excluded  the  pedestal ;  whereon  they  both 
say,  the  birth  of  pandora  was  represented.  We  are  not  told  whether  the  ivory  was 
painted ;  but  by  what  Strabo  says,  that  Pana?nus,  the  brother  or  nephew  of  Phidias, 
assisted  him  in  colouring  the  statue  of  Jupiter  at  Elias,  which  was  likewise  of  ivory  and 
gold,  it  probably  was.  The  reason  why  ivory  v-^as  used  in  statues  of  this  kind,  rather 
than  wood,  seems  not  to  have  been  on  account  of  its  colour,  but  because  wood  is  apt  to 
crack,  and  be  destroyed  by  Avorms  :  for  ivory  is  not  of  a  uniform  colour,  being  yellow 
near  the  outside  of  the  tooth,  and  white  in  the  middle  ;  it  therefore  would  require  painting 
on  that  account,  and  likewise  to  hide  the  joinings  of  the  pieces. 

Thucydides  says,  the  gold  about  it  weighed  40  talents,  which  according  to  the  value 
of  gold  at  that  time,  was  worth  above  120,000/.  sterling.  Lachares  stript  it  ofl'  about  130 
years  after  the  death  of  Pericles,  and  we  do  not  read  that  it  was  ever  replaced. 

The  eastern  front  of  this  temple  hath  suffered  more  than  the  western  ;  all  the  walls 
and  five  of  the  columns  of  the  pronaos  are  down  ;  but  the  eight  columns  in  front  Avith 
their  entablature,  remain  pretty  entire  in  their  original  situation,  tliough  much  the  greater 
part  of  the  pediment  is  wanting. 

^      The  metopes  on  the  south  side  were  adorned  with  sculptures,  in  alto-relievo  of  Centaurs 
and  Lapitlise,  several  of  which  are  not  yet  entirely  defaced. 

The  outside  of  the  cell  was  surrounded  at  the  top  with  a  continued  frieze  of  about 
three  feet  four  inches  deep,  representing  the  Panathenaic  pomp  or  procession,  in  basso- 
relievo  ;  part  of  which  was  copied  by  a  young  French  painter,  employed  by  the  Marquis 
de  Nointel  in  the  year  1674  ;  two  or  three  of  whose  drawings  are  represented  in  Mont- 
faucon's  Antiquities. 

Pausanias  gives  but  a  transient  account  of  this  temple  ;  nor  does  he  say  whether 
Adrian  repaired  it ;  though  his  statue,  and  that  of  his  empress  Sabina  in  the  western 
pediment,  have  occasioned  a  doubt  Avhether  the  sculptures  in  both  Avere  not  put  up  by 
him.  Wheler  and  Spon  were  of  this  opinion,  and  say  they  were  whiter  than  the  rest 
of  the  building ;  the  statue  of  Antoninus,  now  remaining  at  Rome,  may  be  thought  a 
proof,  that  there  were  artists  in  his  time  capable  of  executing  them;  but  this  whiteness 
is  no  proof  that  they  were  more  modern  than  the  temple,  lor  they  might  be  made  of  a 
whiter  marble  ;  and  the  heads  of  Hadrian  and  Sabina  might  be  put  on  two  of  the  ancient 
figures,  which  Avas  no  uncommon  practice  among  the  Romans.  And  if  Ave  may  give 
credit  to  Plutarch,  the  buildings  of  Pericles  were  not  in  the  least  impaired  by  age  in  his 
time,  therefore  this  temple  could  not  want  any  material  repairs  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian; 
unless  the  damage  the  Opisthodonuis  once  suffered  by  fire,  for  Avhich,  Demosthenes  tells 
us,  not  only  the  treasures  of  the  goddess,  but  likeAvise  those  of  the  other  gods,  were 
imprisoned,  had  remained  so  long  unrepaired,  AAhich  is  not  probable. 

I  have  said  that  the  lesser  division  of  tlie  temple  Avas  called  the  Opisthodomus,  where 
the  public  treasure  Avas  kept.  Thucydides  tells  us  it  was  kept  in  the  Acropolis  ;  and 
having  reckoned  up  what  it  amounted  to,  he  says,  "  the  riches  out  of  the  other  temples 
may  likewise  be  used  f  Avliich  implies,  that  the  treasure  he  had  been  speaking  of  was 
kept  in  the  temple.  Aristophanes  places  Plutus,  the  god  of  riches,  in  the  opisthodomus 
of  the  Temple   of  Minerva.     His  scholiast,  indeed,  says,  that  this   Avas   the   Temple 


GRECIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 


7S 


of  Minerva  Polias;  which  is  a  mistake,  for  that  temple  had  only  a  single  cell,  as  will 
appear  hereafter;  nor  could  it  be  the  temple  meant  by  Thucydides,  since  it  was  not 
finished  till  after  the  death  of  Pericles,  as  appears  by  the  inscription  brought  froin  Athens 
at  the  expense  of  the  Society  of  Diietantti.  Demosthenes  calls  the  treasury  opisthodo- 
inus,  whicli  probably  signifies  the  back  of  a  temple  ;  and  Hesycliius,  Harpocralion,  Suidas, 
and  the  Etymologicum,  agree  that  the  Athenian  treasury  was  in  the  opisthodomus  of  tlie 
Temple  of  Minerva,  wiiich  could  be  no  other  than  this. 

The,  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  marble,  in  the  second  part  of  Dr.  Chandler's  Inscriptions, 
are  registers  of  tiie  delivery  of  donations  in  this  temple,  by  the  treasurers  to  their  suc- 
cessors in  office.  The  third  and  fourth  were  found  among  its  ruins.  It  is  called  heca- 
tompedon  in  both,  and  its  opisthodomus  is  expressly  mentioned  in  the  latter.  The  fifth 
calls  it  Parthenon. 

There  is  a  passage  in  Vitruvius,  which  if  it  relates  to  this  temple,  as  I  am  persuaded 
it  does,  would  prove  it  to  liave  been  an  hypajthros ;  that  author  says,  "  The  hypa*thros 
has  ten  columns  in  the  pronaos  and  posticum,  in  all  other  respects  it  is  like  the  Dipteros  : 
within,  it  has  two  rows  of  columns,  one  above  the  other,  at  a  distance  from  the  wall,  so 
that  you  may  pass  round  it,  as  in  the  portico  of  peristyles  ;  but  in  the  middle  it  is  open 
to  the  sky,  without  a  roof;  the  entrance  is  at  each  end,  by  doors  in  the  pronaos  and  the 
posticum.  There  is  no  example  of  this  at  Rome,  but  at  Athens  an  octastyle,  and  in  the 
Olympian  Temple." 

I  shall  now  remark  the  particulars  in  which  the  Parthenon  agrees  with  what  Vitruvius 
hath  here  delivered. 

The  description  I  have  quoted  from  Wheler,  shews  that  this  temple,  when  he  saw  it, 
had  within  the  cell  on  each  side,  two  rows  of  columns  one  above  the  other,  standing  at 
a  distance  from  the  wall.  The  decorations  on  the  eastern  front,  prove  the  principal 
entrance  to  have  been  originally  placed  there ;  though  it  was  most  probably  closed  by 
the  Greek  Christians,  because  otherwise  they  could  not  have  placed  their  Communion 
Table  at  the  east  end  of  the  temple,  a  custom  they  always  religiously  observe.  It  is 
likewise  evident,  that  the  door  we  now  see  in  the  western  front  was  originally  there,  fo 
the  threshold  or  step  into  it  still  remains;  and  thus  far  the  construction  of  this  temple 
agrees  with  what  Vitruvius  has  delivered  and  favours  my  opinion.  It  is  true  the  roof 
with  which  it  v/as  completely  covered  when  Wheler  and  Spon,  and  other  travellers 
examined  it,  may  seem  to  furnish  a  plausible  objection  to  what  I  have  here  advanced  ; 
but  as  great  additions  and  alterations  have  certainly  been  made,  to  adapt  it  to  the  per- 
formance of  the  numerous  ceremonies  of  the  Greek  ritual,  and  the  pompous  functions 
of  the  archbishop  and  his  attendant  clergy,  it  is  extremely  probable  that  the  roof  was 
completed  at  the  same  time ;  and  this  supposition  will  acquire  additional  support,  when 
we  consider  that  the  space  between  the  columns  did  not  much  exceed  thirty  feet,  and 
must  have  been  covered  in,  before  it  was  fit  for  the  reception  of  a  Christian  congrega- 
tion ;  and  that  this  work  would  not  have  been  of  a  more  expensive  kind,  nor  have  required 
greater  skill  in  the  execution,  than  the  alterations  which  Wheler  and  Spon  inform  us 
were  made  in  the  eastern  end. 

Another  objection  may  be  deduced  from  what  Vitruvius  himself  has  said  (Book  IV. 
Chap.  VII.)  where,  enumerating  several  deviations  from  the  usual  form  of  temples,  he 
tells  us,  "  Temples  are  also  built  of  other  kinds,  ordered  with  the  same  proportions,  but 
differently  disposed,  as  that  of  Castor,  in  the  Circus  Flaminus,  and  that  of  Vejovis,  be- 
tween the  two  groves ;  also,  but  more  ingeniou.sly,  that  of  Diana  Nemorensis,  with 
columns  added  to  the  right  and  left  on  the  shoulders  of  the  pronaos ;  but  this  kind 
of  temple,  like  that  of  Castor,  in  the  Circus,  was  first  erected  in  the  Fortress  of  Athens 
to  Minerva,"  &c. 

Vitruvius  having  already  told  us,  that  there  was  no  Hvpa>thros  at  Rome,  seems,  by 

19 


74  GRECIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

remarking  the  similarity  between  tliose  Temples  he  has  here  enumerated,  and  that 
of  Minerva  in  the  Acropolis,  to  furnish  a  proof  that  tlie  latter  was  not  an  Hypa;thros ; 
but  it  must  be  observed,  that  in  this  place  he  is  treating  of  the  disposition  of  the  exleriial 
columns  only- 
It  appears  extraordinary,  that  in  the  account  Vitruvius  has  given  of  the  Hypajthros, 
the  examples  he  produces  are  exceptions  to  his  doctrine;  but  we  may  be  the  less  sur- 
prised at  it,  as  the  same  unusual  proceeding  occurs  in  his  account  of  the  Peripteros  ;  and 
it  is  obvious,  that  an  hypajthros,  having  eight  columns  in  front,  differs  from  one  having 
ten,  only  in  this  particular,  that  the  exterior  columns  form  a  peripteros  instead  of  a 
dipteros,  round  the  cell  of  the  temple  ;  as  the  Marquis  Galiani  hath  well  observed  in  his 
comment  on  this  place. 

Hiiherto  my  remarks  on  what  Vitruvius  has  said  concerning  this  form  or  a.spect 
of  temple,  regard  only  that  part  of  it  which,  I  suppose,  relates  to  the  Parthenon  ;  but  I 
find  myself  obliged  to  add  .some  farther  remarks  on  that  passiige,  on  account  of  an  error 
I  have  committed  in  the  fifth  chapter  of  our  first  volume,  which  treats  of  a  ruin  supposed 
by  me  to  have  been  the  Poikile.  Whelcr  and  Spon  have  called  it  the  Temple  of  Jupiter 
Olympius;  and  Monsieur  Le  Roy  has  followed  them  in  this,  as  well  as  in  many  other 
mistakes.  I  have  there  shewn,  that  neither  the  situation  nor  the  dimensions  of  this  ruin 
answer  to  what  the  ancients  have  delivered  concerning  the  Templeof  Jupiter  at  Athens, 
which  I  have  inadvertently  said  was  an  octastyle,  when  it  certainly  was  a  decaslyle.  I 
was  led  into  this  error  by.  Philander,  and  those  Editors  of  Vitruvius,  who  since  his  time 
have,  as  before  observed,  followed  his  conjectural  emendation  ;  and  who,  instead  of, 
"  But  an  octastyle  at  Athens,  and  in  the  Olympian  Temple,"  read  "  But  an  octastyle  at 
Athens  in  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius." 

The  plan  of  the  Athenian  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius,  which  I  shall  give  at  tlie  end 
of  this  chapter,  will  shew  that  it  was  a  decastyle,  and  therefore  could  not  possibly  be 
tliat  meant  by  Vitruvius,  but  some  other ;  how  then  are  we  to  understand  him  ?  I  shall 
venture  to  suppose,  that  it  is  the  Olympian  Temple,  in  the  territory  of  Elis,  he  has  here 
mentioned;  it  was  of  great  magnificence,  the  Olympic  games  were  celebrated  there,  and 
a  prodigious  concourse  of  people  from  every  part  of  Greece  attended  their  solemnization. 
It  seenies  to  have  been  erected  immediately  after  the  Parthenon,  at  a  time  when  the  study 
of  architecture  was  highly  cultivated,  and  therefore  might  well  deserve  to  be  cited  as  an 
example  by  Vitruvius. 

Pausanius  has  given  a  more  particular  description  of  this  temple,  thanof  any  other  he 
had  seen  ;  he  says,  it  w-as  a  Doric  structure,  that  it  was  68  feet  from  the  pavement  to 
the  top  of  the  pediment,  and  that  the  breadth  was  95  feet;  whence  it  is  evident,  there 
could  not  have  been  more  than  eight  columns  in  its  front;  for  if  we  suppose  the  entabla- 
ture and  pediment  occupied  two-tlflhs  of  its  height,  as  in  the  Parthenon  they  nearly  do, 
the  columns  being  of  Doric  proportion;  must  have  been  more  than  six  feet  in  diameter, 
and  eight  such  columns  would  not  have  left  more  than  seven  feet  for  each  intercolum- 
niation. 

The  same  author  continuing  his  account,  describes  the  two  doors,  one  in  the  pronaos, 
and  the  other  in  the  posticum ;  and  tells  us  there  were,  within  the  cell,  columns 
which  supported  lofty  porticos  through  which  you  pas.sed  on  to  the  image  of  the  god; 
this  like  that  of  Minerva  in  the  Parthenon,  was  of  a  colossal  size,  and  made  of  ivory 
and  gold  by  the  same  great  artist.  These  circumstances  answer  (o  the  description 
Vitruvius  hath  given  of  the  hypa'thros;  there  is  however  one  particular  mentioned  by 
Strabo,  which  may  appear  to  contradict  this  opinion  ;  he  says  this  statute  of  Jujiitcr  was 
of  so  great  a  magnitude,  that  though  he  was  represented  sitting,  he  almost  touched  the 
roof,  and  it  seemed,  if  he  were  to  rise,  he  would  uncover  the  temple,  which  he  adds,  was 
Oi  the  amplest  dimensions. 


GRECIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  75 

Hence,  indeed,  it  is  plain,  that  the  statue  was  under  cover;  nor  can  it  be  supposed 
that  so  magnilicent  and  costly  a  work,  composed  of  ivory  and  gold,  and  delicately  painted, 
was  exposed  in  the  open  air  to  all  the  variations  of  weather.  Yet  those  who  would 
contend,  that  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius  at  Athens,  and  not  that  at  Elis,  is  the 
hypaUhros  which  Vitruvius  meant  to  exemplify,  will  be  under  the  same  difficulty;  for 
Pausanius  informs  us,  a  colossal  statue  of  the  god,  formed  likewise  of  ivory  and  gold, 
was  placed  in  it.  We  must  therefore  allow,  ihat  in  temples  of  this  kind,  some  effectual 
covering  was  contrived  to  shelter  such  statues  from  dust,  sun  and  rain  ;  though  we 
are  nowhere  told,  nor  is  it  easy  to  ascertain,  the  precise  manner  in  which  this,  was 
effected. 

It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  the  peristyle  or  internal  colonnade,  supported  a 
roof  which  sheltered  great  part  of  the  area  of  the  cells,  and  seems  to  have  projected  over 
the  statue  ;  this  perhaps  was  the  roof,  which  Strabo  thought  would  have  been  in  danger, 
if  Jupiter  had  risen  from  his  seat.  And  may  we  not  conjecture,  that  the  Peplus  of 
Minerva,  in  the  Parthenon,  and  the  Parapetasma  of  Jupiter  Olympius  in  Elis,  mentioned 
by  Pausanias  in  his  description  of  that  temple,  were  each  of  them  suspended  in  their 
respective  situations,  so  as  to  aflford  the  requisite  shade  or  shelter  to  those  most  celebrated 
statues'? 

Thus  I  have  said  what  has  occurred  to  me  on  the  subject  of  temples  without  continued 
roofs,  and  with  only  eight  columns  in  front;  of  which  kind  both  the  Parthenon  at 
Athens,  aiid  the  Olympieum  at  Elis,  two  of  the  most  celebrated  temples  in  Greece,  seem 
to  have  been.  And  if  I  am  right  in  my  conjectures  concerning  them,  might  not  Vitru- 
vius  tliink  himself  obliged  to  acquaint  his  reader  with  these  exceptions  to  his  general 
doctrine?' 

The  name  of  this  Temple  (Hecatompedon)  implying  that  if  extended  100  feet,  led  me 
to  inquire  into  the  measure  of  the  attic  foot.  For  which  purpose  I  compared  the  length 
of  the  lower  step  in  front,  and  its  length  on  the  side,  and  found  them  incommensurable; 
neither  were  the  front  and  side  lengths  of  the  step  above  it  commen.surable  with  each 
other.  But  the  third  step,  on  which  the  columns  of  the  portico  stand,  measured  101  feet 
1  7-10  inch  English  in  front,  and  227  feet  7  1-20  inch  on  each  side,  which  are  so  nearly 
in  the  projTOrtion  of  100  to  225,  that,  had  the  greater  measure  been  ^  of  an  inch  less,  it 
would  have  been  deficient  of  it. 

These  measures  were  taken  from  a  brass  scale  of  three  feet,  divided  by  that  eminent 
artist  Mr.  John  Bird,  whose  works  are  known  all  ov€r  Europe. 

The  front  measure  gives  an  attic  foot  of  12,137  London  inches  and  decimals  ;  the  side 
measure  one  of  12,138. 

Hence  the  Roman  foot,  which  according  to  Pliny,  was  to  the  attic  in  the  proportion 
of  600  to  625,  or  of  2-1  to  25,  will  be  found  to  be  11,651  London  inches  and  decimals  or 
971  such  parts,  as  the  London  foot  contains  1000,  which  does  not  sensibly  differ  from 
what  has  been  determined  by  other  methods. 

I  cannot  conclude  this  chapter  v.fithout  mentioning,  that  while  I  measured  the  steps 
of  this  poi'tico,  I  observed  the  blocks  of  marble,  of  which  they  are  composed,  appeared 
to  be  united  and  grown  together,  on  their  contiguous  edges,  the  whole  height  of  the  step; 
and  tliis  apparent  junction  continued  to  some  distance  within  the  portico.  To  satisfy 
myself  in  this  particular,  I  traced  the  joint  till  no  doubt  remained  of  the  separation;  then 
returning  to  the  edge  of  the  step,  I  broke  of  a  piece  across  the  joint  with  a  liammer, 
which  verified  my  conjecture ;  for  in  the  piece  thus  broken  off,  one  half  of  which  was 
part  of  one  block,  and  the  other  part  of  the  block  next  to  it,  the  two  parts  adhered 
together  as  firmly  as  if  they  had  never  been  separate. 

Other  instances  of  this  coalition  we  met  with,  which  were  always  as  here  in  the 
.Perpendicular  joint,  never  in  the  horizontal. 


76  GRECIAN   ARCHITECTURE. 

PLATES  46  AND  47. 
Plate  XLVII.  is  the  volute  on  a  large  scale. 
OF   THE    IONIC   TEMPLE   ON   THE   ILISSUS. 
(From  Stewart's  Antiquities  of  Athens.) 

On  the  Southern  bank  of  the  Ilissus,  not  far  from  the  Fountain  Enneacrunos,  which 
at  present  has  recovered  its  more  ancient  name,  and  is  called  Callirrhoe,  stands  a  little 
Ionic  Temple,  the  mouldings  of  which  difler  much  from  all  the  examples  of  that  order, 
hitherto  published ;  their  forms  are  extremely  simple,  but  withall  so  elegant,  and  the 
whole  is  so  well  executed,  that  it  may  doubtless  be  reckoned  among  those  works  of  anti- 
quity which  best  deserve  our  attention. 

It  should  be  observed,  that  most  of  the  ancient  structures  in  Athens,  of  which  there 
are  any  remains,  were  entirely  built  of  an  excellent  white  marble,  on  which  the  weather 
has  very  little  effect ;  whatever  part  therefore  of  these  antiquities,  has  not  been  impaired 
by  violence,  is  by  no  means  in  that  mouldering  state  of  decay,  to  which  the  dissolvent 
quality  of  the  air  reduces  the  ordinary  buildings  of  common  stone:  from  which  cause  it 
is,  that,  notwithstanding  great  part  of  this  temple  has  long  since  been  thrown  down,  and 
destroyed,  whatever  remains  of  it  is  still  in  good  presei'vation.  The  Athenians,  probably 
several  centuries  ago,  repaired  this  building;  and  with  some  barbarous  additions,  trans- 
formed it  into  a  church,  dedicated  to  the  mother  of  Christ ;  and  called  from  its  situation, 
St.  Mary's  on  the  Rock :  which  name  it  still  retains,  although  the  repairs  which  were 
then  bestowed  on  it,  are  now  also  gone  to  decay,  and  the  church  is  at  present  totally 
deserted.  Spon  supposes,  that  it  was  anciently  dedicated  to  Ceres,  and  appropriated  to 
the  celebration  of  the  Lesser  Mysteries.  It  were  to  be  wished  that  he  had  produced 
the  authorities  on  which  his  opinion  is  founded  ;  it  had  then  perhaps  never  been  con- 
troverted, or  at  least  he  would  have  enabled  his  readers  to  determine  with  more  ease 
and  greater  accuracy,  how  far  they  could  concur  with  him  in  his  sentiments  on  this 
subject. 

The  spot  on  which  it  is  built,  commands  a  very  beautiful  and  extensive  prospect ;  and 
in  the  neighbourhood  are  still  visible  the  ruins  and  foundations  of  many  edifices  which 
formerly  improved  this  pleasing  situation,  and  adorned  the  banks  of  the  Ilissus.  Among 
these  were  the  Lyceum,  the  Stadium,  the  Altar  of  the  Muses  Ilissiades,  the  Monument 
of  Nisus,  and  the  Temple  of  Diana  Agrotera  ;  all  which  Pausanius  has  enumerated ;  and 
of  this  number  likewise  was  the  temple  of  Boreas,  mentioned  by  Herodotus.  But  it  is 
evident  from  many  circumstances,  that  none  of  them  can  be  the  temple  here  described : 
these  circumstances  however  do  not  effect  the  conjecture  of  Monsieur  Spon.  which  so 
far  deserves  credit,  as  it  is  certain,  that  the  temple  dedicated  to  Ceres  Agrotera,  was  near 
the  city,  and  on  the  South  side  of  the  Ilissus. 

It  should  not  however  be  omitted,  that  there  was  a  temple,  a  statue,  and  a  fountain, 
which  were  dedicated  to  an  Athenian  hero,  named  Panops,  and  they  were  all  of  them, 
probably,  near  this  place  ;  since  by  the  passage  in  Plato,  the  foimtain  appears  to  have  been 
just  without  the  gate  of  Athens  which  was  nearest  the  Lyceum  and  the  Ilissus.  So 
small  a  temple  as  this  we  have  treated  of,  seems  not  to  correspond  with  the  high. vene- 
ration in  which  the  Goddess  Ceres  was  held  at  Athens  ;  and  it  could  by  no  means  be 
sufficient  for  the  reception  of  that  train  and  pomp,  which  doubtlessly  accompanied  the 
celebration  even  of  the  lesser  mysteries.  It  may  tlierefore  rather  be  imagined,  that  the 
hero  Panops  was  honored  in  this  temple. 


GRECIAN    ARCHITECTURE.  77 

PLATES  48,  49,  and  50. 

OF  THE  TEMPLES  OP  ERECHTHEUS,  MINERVA  POLIAS.  AND  f  ANDROSOS. 

(From  Stewart's  Antiquities  of  Athens.) 

*ro  the  north  of  the  Parthenon,  at  the  distance  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  arc 
the  remains  of  three  contiguous  temples.  That  towards  the  east  was  called  the  Erech- 
theum;  to  the  westward  of  this,  but  under  the  same  roof,  was  the  Temple  of  Minerva, 
with  the  title  Polias,  as  protcctoress  of  the  city  ;  adjoining  to  which,  on  the  south  side  is, 
the  Pandrosium,  so  named  because  it  was  dedicated  to  the  nymph  Pandrosus,  one  of  the 
daughters  of  Cecrops. 

Pausanias  has  not  given  a  more  particular  description  of  this  building  than  he  has 
of  the  Parthenon.  He  tells  us  it  was  a  double  temple,  and  that  in  the  Erechtheum  was 
the  spring  of  sea-water  produced  by  the  stroke  of  Neptune's  trident,  when  he  contended 
with  Minerva  for  the  patronage  of  the  city.  Before  the  entrance  was  an  altar  of  Jupiter 
the  Supreme,  and  within  the  temple  an  altar  of  Neptune,  on  which,  by  command  of  an 
oracle,  they  sacrificed  likewise  to  Erechtheus ;  whence  we  may  conclude,  it  was  not 
originally  dedicated  to  him,  but  to  Neptune.  Here  Avas  likeAvise  an  altar  of  the  h  to 
Butes,  tlie  brother  of  Erechiheus;  and  another  on  W'hich  they  sacrificed  to  Vulcan.  On 
the  walls  were  paintings  (inscriptions)  relating  to  the  family  of  Butes,  in  which  the 
priesthood  of  these  temples  was  hereditary. 

In  the  Temple  of  Minerva  Polias  was  the  ancient  statue  of  the  goddess ;  it  was 
of  wood,  and  said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven ;  this  I  suppose  to  have  been  one  of  those 
ancient  statues,  w^hich  Pausanias  tells  us  were  entire  but  black,  and  so  scorched  with 
the  flames  when  Xerxes  burnt  the  temple,  that  they  would  not  bear  a  blow.  Here  was 
likewise  a  Hermes,  or  statue  of  Mercury,  dedicated  by  Cecrops  ;  it  was  almost  hid  fronn 
the  sight  by  branches  of  myrtle,  on  account,  it  should  seem  of  the  indecency  and  absurdity 
of  such  an  image  in  the  temple  of  a  virgin  ;  superstition  alone  could  have  prevented  the 
Athenians  from  removing  it,  for  a  hermes  appears  to  have  been  as  obscene  a  figure  as  a 
Priapus.  Here  also  was  the  golden  lamp  made  by  Callimachus,  who  invented  the 
Corinthian  capital :  it  was  said  to  burn  all  the  year  without  fresh  supplies  of  oil :  this 
damp  was  placed  under  a  brazen  palm-tree,  the  branches  of  which  extended  up  the  roof, 
•and  conveyed  away  the  smoke. 

The  Padrosium  is  the  only  ancient  example  we  know  of,  in  which  the  entablature  and 
roof  is  supported  by  Caryatides.  Pausanias  has  not  mentioned  them,  though  they  are 
certainly  more  ancient  than  the  time  in  which  he  wrote.  Vitruvius  probably  alludes  to 
this  building,  when  he  tells  us,  thai  after  the  defeat  of  the  Persians,  and  the  destruction 
of  the  city  of  Carya,  the  architects  of  those  times  placed  "female  figures  of  this  kind  in 
public  buildings,  to  perpetuate  the  ignominy  of  those  who  deserted  the  cause  of  liberty 
and  their  country. 

Within  the  Pandrosium  w^as  the  olive-tree,  said  to  have  been  produced  by  Minerva  in 
lier  contest  with  Neptune  above-mentioned,  it  was  called  Pankyphos  (incurvated)  from 
its  branches  being  bent  downwards  after  it  had  grown  up  to  the  roof.  Under  this  tree 
stood  the  altar  of  Jupiter  Herceus,  Some  have  imagined  that  an  olive-tree  grew  in  the 
temple  of  Minerva  Polias  ;  but  it  is  quite  improbable  thtit  any  tree  should  groAV  iii  a  place 
so  unfavourable  to  vegetation  ;  for  it  appears  to  have  been  a  close  room,  illuminated  only 
by  a  lamp ;  whereas,  in  this  of  Parndrosus  a  free  admission  was  given  to  light  and  air, 
the  spaces  between  the  caryatides  being  left  entirely  open. 

The  olive  and  the  spring  of  .sea-watet-  prove  this  to  be  the  fabulous  scene  of  contention 
between  the  two  divinities ;  they  also  prove  that  these  Temples  were  rebuilt  on  the 

20 


78  GRECIAN    ARCHITECTURE. 

same  spot  where  those  stood  that  were  burnt  by  Xerxes,  which  doubtless  were  of  great 
antiquity,  probably  the  raost  ancient  in  Athens.  Homer  mentions  that  of  Minerva,  under 
which  name  he  seems  to  include  them  all,  as  Herodotus  afterwards  does  under  that 
of  Erechtheus. 

An  inscription  brought  from  Athens  at  the  expense  of  the  Society  of  Dilettanti,  and 
published  by  Dr.  Chandler,  contains  a  survey  of  such  parts  of  these  temples  as  were  at 
that  time  unfinished,  with  what  seems  to  be  an  estimate  in  Attic  minas  of  the  expense 
of  completing  them,  amounting  to  between  three  and  four  hundred  pounds  sterling. 

This  survey  was  taken  by  order  of  the  people  of  Athens  when  Diocles^was  archon, 
which  was  in  the  twenty-third  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  ;  hence  it  is  not  improba- 
ble, tiiat  this  building  was  begun  during  the  administration  of  Pericles,  and  a  stop  put 
to  it  either  by  his  death  or  the  calamities  and  expenses  of  that  war. 

By  the  grammatical  inaccuracy  in  this  inscription,  it  seems  to  have  been  drawn  up 
by  the  mason  employed  in  the  survey.  And  the  terms  of  architecture  not  to  be  found 
in  any  writer  now  remaining,  together  with  our  ignorance  in  what  manner  the  survey 
"was  taken,  whether  by  going  regularly  round  the  building,  or  by -classing  similar  defi- 
ciencies together,  render  it  very  obscure,  and  in  a  great  measure  unintelligible. 

The  situation  of  some  of  the  most  unfinished  parts,  is  described  as  being  near  the 
Cecropium  ;  of  others  near  the  Pandrosium,  some  on  the  south  wall,  others  on  the  east. 
By  the  Cecrojpium  I  understand  the  Temple  of  Minerva  Polias,  which  might  be  so  called, 
from  the  opinion  that  Cecrops  was  buried  there,  as  the  contiguous  Temple  of  Neptune, 
probably  for  a  like  reason  was  called  the  Erechtheum. 

We  read  of  no  other  building  called  Cecropium  ;  the  Acropolis,  which  was  the  ancient 
city,  and  said  to  have  been  built  by  Cecrops,  was  called  Cecropia. 

in  this  survey  no  part  of  the  Cecropium,  or  of  the  Pandrosium,  is  said  to  be  unfinished. 
In  the  forty-fourth  line  it  mentions  columns  on  the  wall  next  the  Pandrosium  ;  and  in 
the  sixty-second,  pilasters  next  to  the  Cecropium  ;  some  other  particulars  occur  in  it, 
which  seem  to  belong  to  the  present  building,  but  the  measures  assigned  to  them  prove 
the  contrary.  This  circumstance  is  a  confirmation  of  a  passage  in  Xenophon,  where 
this  temple  is  said  to  have  been  burnt  about  three  years  after  this  survey  was 
taken,  though  the  names  of  the  archon  and  ephorus  are  generally  believed  to  be  inter- 
polated. 

These  temples  are  now  in  a  very  ruinous  condition.  Those  of  Erechtheus  and  Minerva 
have  at  present  no  roof  or  covering  of  any  kind.  The  wall  which  separated  them,  and 
that  by  which  the  Pronaos,  or  passage  to  "the  Pandrosiiun,  Avas  parted  ofl'  from  the  Tem- 
ple of  Minerva,  are  so  demolished,  that  hardly  any  traces  of  them  remain,  except  where 
they  joined  the  side  walls.  The  pavements  are  so  encumbered  Avith  large  blocks 
of  marble  and  variety  of  rubbish,  as  to  render  the  inside  almost  impassable,  and  a  more 
particular  disquisition  there,  fruitless.  The  Pandrosium,  though  it  has  suffered  least,  is 
filled  up  to  a  great  height  in  the  same  manner,  and  one  of  the  Caryatides  is  wanting. 
We  found  the  portico  of  Minerva  Polias  walled  up,  and  being  a  magazine  of  military 
stores,  all  entrance  into  it  was  denied  us. 

In  the  time  of  Wheler  and  Spon  this  building  was  more  entire,  for  it  was  then  in- 
habited, a  Turkish  officer  having  made  it  his  seraglio  ;  but  that  circumsta?^  was  an 
insurmountable  obstacle  to  the  curiosity  of  those  gentlemen,  who,  had  they  viewed  the 
inside,  might  possibly  have  given  us  some  information  which  we  now  want. 

Although  these  three  temples  compose  one  body,  they  are  not  on  the  same  level ;  for 
the  pavement  of  the  Temple  of  Erechtheus,  is  about  eight  feet  higher  than  that  of  the 
rest  of  the  building.  Neither  has  the  architect  attempted  to  form  them  into  one  regular 
whole,  but  seems  purposely  to  have  kept  them,  as  we  now  see  them,  in  three  distinct 
forms. 


GRECIAN   ARCHITECTURE.  79 

PL.  51. 

OF    THE    CHORAGIC    MONUMENT   OF    LYSICRATES    COMMONLY    CALLED    THE    LANTHORN   OF 

DEMOSTHENES. 

(From  Stewart's  Antiquities  of  Athens.) 

The  modern  Athenians  call  this  edifice  to  Phanaria  tou  Deraostheneos,  or  the  lanthorn 
of  Demosthenes,  and  the  vulgar  story  which  says,  it  was  built  by  that  great  orator,  for  a 
place  of  retirement  and  study,  is  still  as  current  at  Athens  as  it  was  in  the  time  of  Wheler 
and  Spon  ;  but  like  many  other  popular  traditions,  it  is  too  absurd  to  deserve  a  serious 
refutation. 

Wheler  and  Spon  have  described  this  building.  They  are  the  first  authors  who  have 
taken  notice  of  the'l  inscriptions  upon  it,  from  the  tenour  of  which  they  conclude,  that 
this  building  was  erected  in  honour  of  the  several  persons  mentioned  in  the  inscription  ; 
and  that  it  was  the  monument  of  a  victory  tliey  had  obtained  in  one  of  the  public  shows 
or  games. 

Their  opinion  will  be  confirmed  in  the  course  of  the  present  chapter,  and  the  purpose 
which  this  monument  was  designed  to  answer,  will  be  farther  explained ;  for  it  appears 
upon  a  diligent  examination,  that  besides  recording  the  names  of  the  victors,  it  likewise 
supported  a  tripod  which  tliey  had  contended  i'or,  and  had  won  in  these  games.  It  ap- 
pears also  that  neither  the  building  itself,  nor  the  sculpture  which  adorns  the  frieze,  have 
any  relation  to  Hercules  ;  though  all  the  writers  who  have  hitherto  described  them, 
imagine  they  had :  neither  do  they  relate  to  athletic  combats  of  any  species.  This 
sculpture  represents  one  of  the  adventures  of  Bacchus  ;  and  the  victory  which  this 
monument  celebrates,  was  not  obtained  in  the  stadium,  but  in  the  theatre. 

This  monument  of^  anti(]^uity,  which  is  exquisitely  wrought,  stands  near  the  eastern 
end  of  the  Acropolis  and  is  partly  enclosed  in  the  hospitum  of  the  Capuchins.  It  is 
composed  of  three  distinct  parts.  First,  a  quadrangular  basement:  secondly,  a  circular 
colonnade,  the  intercolumniations  of  which  were  entirely  closed  up  ;  and  thirdly,  a  Tholus 
or  cupola  with  the  ornament  which  is  placed  on  it. 

There  is  no  kind  of  entrance  of  aperture  in  the  quadrangular  basement ;  it  is  entirely 
closed  on  every  side.  On  breaking  through  one  of  the  sides,  it  was  found  however  not 
to  be  quite  solid.  But  the  void  space  is  so  small  and  so  irregular,  that  a  man  can  hardly 
stand  upright  in  it.  • 

This  basement  supports  the  circular  colonnade,  which  was  constructed  in  the  follow- 
ing manner,  six  equal  pannels  of  white  marble  placed  contiguous  to  each  other,  on  a 
circular  plan,  formed  a  continued  cylindrical  wall ;  which  of  course  was  divided  from  top 
to  bottom,  into  six  equal  parts,  by  the  junctures  of  the  pannels.  On  the  whole  length 
of  each  juncture  was  cut  a  semi-circular  gi'oove,  in  which  a  Corinthian  column  was  fitted 
with  great  exactness,  and  effectually  concealed  the  junctures  of  the  pannels.  Tliese 
columns  projected  somewliat  more  than  half  their  diameters  from  the  surface  of  the  cylin- 
drical walL  and  the  wall  entirely  closed  up  the  intercolumniation.  Over  this  was  placed 
the  entaMpjre,  and  the  cupola,  in  neither  of  which  any  aperture  was  made,  so  that  there 
was  no  acmission  to  the  inside  of  this  monument,  and  it  was  quite  dark.  It  is  besides, 
only  5  feet  11  inches  and  a  half  in  the  clear,  and  therefore  was  never  intended  for  a 
habitation,  or  even  a  repository  of  any  kind. 

An  entrance  however  has  been  since  forced  into  it,  by  breaking  through  one  of  the 
pannels  ;  probably  in  expectation  of  finding  treasures  here  ;  for  in  these  countries,  such 
barbarism  reigns  at  present,  every  ancient  building  which  is  beautiful  or  great,  beyond 
the  conception  of  the  present  inhabitants,  is  always  supposed  by  them  to  be  the  work 


80  GRECIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

of  magic,  and  the  repository  of  hidden  treasures.  At  present  three  of  the  marble  pannels 
are  destroyed  ;  their  places  are  supplied  by  a  door,  and  two  brick  walls,  and  it  is  cCn- 
verted  into  a  closet. 

It  should  be  observed  that  two  tripods  with  handles  to  them,  are  wrought  in  basso- 
relievo  on  each  of  the  three  pannels  which  still  remain.  They  are  perhaps  of  the  species 
which  Homer  and  Hesiod  describe  by  the  name  of  eared  tripods. 

The  architrave  and  frieze  of  this  circular  colonnade  are  both  formed  of  only  one  block 
of  marble.  On  the  architrave  there  were  inscriptions,  from  which  we  may  conclude  that 
on  some  solemn  festival  which  was  celebrated  with  games  and  plays,  Lysicrates  of  Kikyna, 
a  demos  or  borough  town  of  the  tribe  of  Akamantis,  did  on  behalf  of  his  tribe,  but  at  his 
own  expense,  exhibit  a  musical  or  theatrical  entertainment ;  in  which  the  boys  of  the 
tribe  of  Akamantis  obtained  the  victory  ;  that  in  memory  of  their  victory,  this  monument 
was  erected  ;  and  the  name  of  tiie  person  at  whose  expense  the  entertainment  was  ex- 
hibited, of  the  tribe  that  gained  tiie  prize,  of  the  musician  who  accompanied  the  per- 
formers, and  of  the  composer  of  the  piece,  are  all  recorded  on  it ;  to  these  the  name  of  the 
annual  Archon  is  likewise  added,  in  whose  year  of  magistracy  all  this  was  transacted. 
From  which  last  circumstance  it  appears  that  this  building  was  erected  above  three 
hundred  and  sixty  years  before  the  Christian  era  ;  in  the  time  of  Demosthenes,  Apelles, 
Lysippus,  and  Alexander'the  Great. 

Round  the  frieze  is  represented  the  story  of  Bacchus  and  the  Tyrrhenian  pirates. 
The  figure  of  Bacchus  himself,  the  fauns  and  satyrs  who  attend  him  on  the  manifestation 
of  his  divinity,  the  chastisement  of  the  pirates,  their  terror  and  their  transformation  into 
dolphins,  are  expressed  in  tills  basso-relievo,  with  the  greatest  spirit  and  elegance. 

Tlie  cornice  which  is  otherwise  very  simple,  is  crowned  with  a  sort  of  Vitruvian 
scroll,  instead  of  a  syma.  It  is  remarkable  that  no  cornice  of  an  ancient  building  actually 
existing,  and  decorated  in  this  manner,  has  hitherto  been  published  ;  yet  temples  crowned 
with  this  ornament,  are  frequently  represented  on  medals;  and  there  is  an  example 
much  resembling  it  among  those  ancient  paintings  which  adorn  a  celebrated  manuscript 
of  Virgil,  preserved  in  the  Vatican  library.  This  cornice  is  composed  of  several  pieces 
of  marble;  they  are  bound  together  by  (he  cupola,  which  is  of  one  entire  piece. 

The  outside  of  the  cupola  is  wrought  with  mucli  delicacy ;  it  imitates  a  thatch,  of 
covering  of  laurel  leaves;  this  is  likewise  edged  with  a  Vitruvian  scroll,  and  enriched 
with  otiier  ornaments.  The  flower  on  the  top  of  the  cupola,  is  a  very  graceful  composi- 
tion of  foliage.     This  ornament  appears  to  have  been  a  tripod. 

It  Avas  the  form  of  tlie  upper  surface  of  the  flower,  and  principally'indeed,  the  disposi- 
tion of  four  remarkable  cavities  in  it,  which  first  led  to  this  discovery.  Three  of  them 
are  cut  on  the  three  principal  projections  of  the  upper  surface,  their  disposition  is  that 
of  the  angles  of  an  equilateral  triangle  ;  in  these  the  tripod  were  probably  fixed.  In  the 
fourtli  cavity,  which  is  much  the  largest,  and  is  in  the  centre  of  this  upper  surface,  a 
ballister  w'as  in  all  likelihood  inserted  ;  its  use  was  to  support  the  tripod,  and  to  give  it 
thai  stability  which  its  situation  required. 

Every  body  know.s  that  the  games  and  plays  w-hich  the  ancient  Grecians  exhibited  at 
the  celebration  of  their  greater  festivals  were  chiefly  athletic  exercises  and  theatric  or 
musical  performances  ;  and  that  these  made  a  very  considerable,  essential,  ^0  splendid 
part  of  the  solemnity.  In  order,  therefore,  to  engage  a  greater  number  of  competitors, 
and  to  excite  their  emulation  more  eflfectually,  prizes  were  allotted  to  the  victors  ;  and 
these  prizes  were  generally  exhibited  to  public  view  during  the  time  in  wliich  these 
games  were  celebrated, 

"  In  view  amid  the  spacious  circle  lay 
The  splendid  gifts,  the  prizes  of  the  day, 


CHORAGIC    MONUMENT   OF  LYSICRATES.  81 

Arms  on  the  ground,  and  sacred  tripods  glow. 
With  wreaths  and  palms  to  bind  the  victor's  brow." 

Pitt's  translation  or  viugil.     ^neid  v.  verse  140, 

None  of  these  prizes  seem  to  have  been  in  higher  estimation  than  tripods,  or  more 
frequently  the  reward  of  superior  force,  address,  and  genius. 

Homer,  when  he  describes  the  games  which  were  celebrated  at  the  funeral  of  Patro- 
clus,  introduces  Achilles  proclaiming  tripods  as  the  principal  prizes  to  be  contended  for, 
both  by  the  charioteers  and  by  those  who  engaged  in  wrestling.  Pindar  celebrates 
Castor  and  lolaus  for  their  excellence  in  the  chariot  race,  the  naked  and  the  armed  course, 
throwing  the  javelin,  and  tossing  the  discus ;  and  he  represents  them  adorning  their 
houses  with  tripods,  and  other  prizes,  which  they  had  w^on  in  these  games.  But  Hesiod 
celebrates  his  own  victory :  he  obtained  it  in  the  games  which  were  solemnized  at 
Chalcis.  On  this  occasion,  he  describes  himself  bearing  off  the  prize  tripod  from  his 
competitors  in  poetry,  and  consecrating  it  to  the  Muses. 

It  was  the  usual  custom,  and  a  very  ancient  one,  for  the  victors  to  dedicate  these 
tripods  to  some  divinity,  and  to  place  them,  either  in  temples  already  built,  or  upon  the 
top  of  some  consecrated  edifice  erected  for  that  purpose;  thus  they  participated  of  the 
sanctity  of  the  place,  and  were  secure  from  injury  and  violence  ;  to  have  destroyed  or 
defaced  them,  had  doubtless  been  esteemed  an  act  of  sacrilege.  A  tripod  thus  dedicated, 
was  always  accompanied  with  an  inscription  ;  so  that  it  became  a  permanent,  authentic, 
and  public  monument  of  the  victory,  and  of  the  person  v»'ho  hadoblained  it. 

The  tripod  seems  to  have  been  the  peculiar  reward  bastowed  by  the  people  of  Athens 
on  that  Chorague  who  had  exhibited  the  best  musical  or  theatrical  entertainment:  for 
we  find  these  kinds  of  tripods  had  obtained  a  particular  name  from  this  custom,  and  were 
called  Choragic  tripods.  The  gaining  of  this  prize  was  attended  with  considerable  ex- 
pense :  each  Choragus  disbursed  the  money  for  the  entertainment  he  exhibited,  but  the 
victor  was  moreover  at  the  charge  of  consecrating  the  tripod  he  had  w^on  ;  and  .sometimes, 
also,  of  building  the  temple  on  which  it  w^as  placed. 

There  were  formerly  many  edifices  or  temples  of  this  sort  in  Athens  :  one  of  them,  as 
Plutarch  informs  us,  was  built  by  Nicias  within  the  place  consecrated  to  Bacchus  :  and 
Pausanias  says,  that  there  was  a  street  leading  from  the  Prytaneum,  which  took  its 
name  from  the  number  of  tripods  in  it.  He  tells  us,  they  were  placed  on  temples,  that 
they  were  of  brass  indeed,  but,  on  account  of  the  workmanship,  they  merited  our 
attention. 

That  the  building  usually  called  the  lanthorn  of  Demosthei>es  was  of  this  sort,  the 
particulars  already  recited  seem  to  evince.  The  three  principal  projections,  which  give 
a  triangular  form  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  flower,  and  the  number  and  disposition  of  the 
cavities  in  it,  which  seem  so  aptly  suited  to  receive  the  feet  of  the  tripod,  must  immedi- 
ately suggest  this  opinion  to  any  one  who  recollects  that  tripods  were  sometimes  placed 
on  temples.  The  tripods  represented  on  all  thepannels  which  are  not  destroyed  ;  and 
the  inscription,  so  exactly  like  those  which  were  inscribed  on  Clioragic  tripods,  do  greatly 
confirm  this  opinion:  besides  all  which,  we  may  add,  that  as  this  building  Avas  entirely 
closed  ayjteround,  it  seems  that  no  other  use  can  with  any  show  of  probability  be  assigned 
to  it.       • 

We  may  therefore  conclude,  that  this  building  supported  the  choragic  tripod  of  Lysi- 
crates  ;  and  we  may  suppose  that  the  sculpture  on  it,  represents  the  subject  of  the 
theatric  or  musical  entertainment,  which  was  exhibited  at  his  expense  by  the  chorus 
of  boys.  If  we  further  suppo.se,  that  these  games  were  celebrated  during  the  Dionysia, 
or  festivals  in  honour  of  Bacchus,  both  the  subject  of  the  sculpture,  and  the  custom 
of  giving  tripods  particularly  to  the  victors  in  those  games,  will  concur  to  support  the 
conjecture.  % 

*  21 


82  WINDOW    SHUTTERS. 

PL.  56. 

Exhibits  a  plan  of  a  box  frame  sitting  in  a  brick  wall,  with  the  stone  sill,  wooden  sill, 
sash,  shutters  closed  over  the  window,  shutters  folded  in  the  box,  and  inside  pilaster 
annexed  thereto,  and  likewise  a  section  of  the  stone  sill,  wooden  sill,  inside  back  and 
brick  Ayall,  with  an  elevation  of  one  side  of  the  frame  at  Fig.  2. 

As  this  sort  of  work  falls  into  almost  every  carpenter's  hand,  it  may  sometimes  be 
found  a  dilficult  job  by  some  ;  consequently  I  shall  be  more  particular  in  my  explanations 
than  otherwise. 

REFERENCES  TO  FIGURES  1,  2,  3,  AND  4. 

Fig.  1,  is  a  plan  of  the  box  frame,  shutter  box,  inside  shutters  in  the  box,  inside  shut- 
ters closed  over  the  window,  inside  pilaster,  stud  or  joist,  stone  sill,  wooden  sill  sash, 
and  the  path  of  the  shutters  when  closing  or  unclosing. 

a.  Stone  sill,  made  with  a  drip  or  wash  from  y  y,  which  is  the  same  as  y  y,  m  Fig.  2. 

b.  Wood  sill. 

c.  Sash 

d  d  d  d,  Inside  shutter. 

e.  Upright  sash  bar. 

/,  Inside  bead  or  stop.. 

g,  Parting  bead. 

h,  Outside  lining. 

i,  Outside  casing,  or  hanging  style  to  blinds  or  shutters. 

j,  Pulley  style. 

k,  Inside  lining. 

/,  Back  lining. 

7nin,  Weights. 

n.  Brick  wall,  one  foot  thick. 

0,  Back  lining  to  the  shutter  box. 

p,  Inside  grounds. 

q,  Inside  pilaster. 

r,  The  line  of  the  plinth  of  the  pilaster. 

s,  Stud  or  joist. 

t,  The  circle  or  path  of  the  middle  shutter  when,  folding  or  unfolding. 

u,  The  path  of  the  shutter  hung  to  the  box  when  folding  or  unfolding. 

V  w  x,  To  show  the  method  of  calculating  the  proportion  of  the  shutter  and  box. 

3,  The  thickness  of  the  lath. 

4,  Thickness  of  brown  wall. 

5,  Thickness  of  hard  finish. 


TO  GET  THE  PROPORTION  OF  THE  SHUTTERS  AND  SHUTTER  BOXES. 

First,  obtain  the  centre  of  the  window  at  :r,  then  allow  about  l-8th  or  l-4th  of  an  inch 
at  w]  tlien  take  the  remaining  distance  from  %o  to  x,  noticing  that  a:  includes  die  whole 
rabbit,  and  divide  it  into  two  equal  parts  :  make  x  the  centre  of  the  hinge,  wen  make 
the  rabbit  all  clear  of  the  hinge,  and  the  proportion  or  width  of  the  shutters  will  be  com- 

})lete,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  two  circles  t  and  w.     In  order  to  make  it  perfectly  plain,  I 
lave  given  the  shutters  folded  and  unfolded. 

Fig.  2  is  a  section  of  the  stone  sill.  Wood  sill,  inside  back,  and  brick  wall ;  and  like- 
wise an  elevation  of  a  part  of  the  brick  wall  and  sash  frame. 

a,  Stone  sill. 

b,  Wood  sill.  ' 


WINDOW    SHUTTERS. 


83 


c,  Section  of  sash  sill. 

d,  Inside  bead  or  stop. 

e,  Bead  on  the  back,  and  passes  over  the  elbows. 
/,  Inside  back. 

g,  Pannel  to  back. 

h,  Section  of  brick  wall  under  stone  sill. 

i,  Elevation  of  tlie  brick  wall  up  the  side  of  the  window. 

j,  Parting  bead. 

k,  Groove  or  channel  for  the  upper  sash. 

/,  Outside  bead. 

m,  Outside  casing  or  hanging  style — (see  i,  in  Fig.  1.) 

n,  Wash  stone  sill — (see  3  4  5,  at  the  dotted  line  in  Fig.  1.) 

y  ij,  Represents  the  part  of  the  stone  sill  in  front  of  the  wood  sill — (see  yy,  in  Fig.  1 

z  z,  The  part  in  front  of  the  hanging  style  j,  in  Fig.  1. 

2  2,  The  part  projecting  past  the  brick  wall. 

THE  METHOD  OF  TAKING  OUT  AND  RE-FITTING  THE  POCKET  PIECE. 

Fig.  3,  is  a  side  of  the  pulley  style,  and  Fig.  4,  an  edge. 

d  I,  In  Fig.  3,  is  a  face  of  the  pocket  piece ;  when  in  the  style  a,  in  Fig.  4,  it  is  a 
sectional  view  of  the  pocket  piece. 

PL.  84. 

TO  DESCRIBE  THE  ANGLE  BARS  FOR  SHOP  FRONTS. 

In  Fig.  1,  B  is  a  common  bar,  and  A  is  the  angle  bar  of  the  same  thickness  ;  take  the 
raking  projection  1,  1,  in  A,  and  set  the  foot  of  your  compass  in  1  at  B,  and  cross  the 
middle  of  the  base  at  the  other  1  ;  then  draw  the  lines  2  2,  3  3,  «Stc.  parallel  to  1 1  ;  then 
prick  your  bar  at  A  from  the  ordinates  so  drawn  at  B,  which  being  traced  will  give  the 
angle  bar. 

HOW  TO  FIND  THE  RAKING  MOULDINGS  OF  A  PEDIMENT. 

In  Fig.  2,  let  the  simarecta  on  the  under  side  be  the  given  mouldings  at  A,  and  let 
lines  be  drawn  upon  the  rake  at  discretion  ;  but  if  you  please,  let  them  be  equally  divided 
upon  the  simarecta,  and  drawn  parallel  to  the  rake  ;  then  the  mould  at  the  middle  being 
pricked  off  from  these  level  lines  at  the  bottom,  will  give  the  form  of  the  face.  The 
return  moulding  at  the  top  must  be  pricked  upon  the  rake,  according  to  the  letters. 

N.  B.  If  the  middle  moulding.  Fig.  2,  be  given,  perpendiculars  must  be  drawn  to  the 
top  of  it ;  then  horizontal  lines  must  be  drawn  over  the  mouldings  at  each  end,  with  the 
same  divisions  as  are  over  the  mouldings  ;  and  lines  being  drawn  perpendicularly  down, 
as  above,  will  show  how  to  trace  the  end  mouldings. 


S4  TERMS  USED  IN  CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 


AN  EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS  USED  IN  CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 

(From  Nicholson's  New  Practical  Builder. 

Abutment. — The  junction  or  meeting  of  two  pieces  of  timber,  of  which  the  fibres 
of  the  one  extend  perpendicular  to  the  joint,  and  those  of  the  other  parallel  to  it. 

Arris. — The  line  of  concourse  or  meeting  of  two  surfaces. 

Back  of  a  Hand-rail. — The  upper  side  of  it. 

Back  op  a  Hip. — The  upper  edge  of  a  rafter,  between  the  two  sides  of  a  hipped  roof, 
formed  to  an  angle,  so  as  to  range  with  the  rafters  on  each  side  of  it. 

Back-Shutters  or  Back-Flaps. — Additional  breadths  hinged  to  the  front  shutters  for 
covering  the  aperture  completely,  when  required  to  be  shut. 

Back  of  a  window. — The  board  or  wainscoting  between  the  sash  frame  and  the  floor, 
uniting  with  the  two  elbows,  and  forming  part  of  the  finish  of  a  room.  When  framed,  it 
has  commonly  a  single  pannel,  with  mouldings  on  the  framing,  corresponding  with  the 
doors,  shutters  &c.,  in  the  apartment  in  which  it  is  fixed. 

Basil. — The  sloping  edge  of  a  chisel,  or  of  the  iron  of  a  plane. 

Batten. — A  scantling  of  stnflT  from  two  inches  to  seven  inches  in  breadth,  and  from 
half  an  inch  to  one  inch  and  a  half  in  thickness. 

Baulk. — A  piece  of  fir  or  deal,  from  four  to  ten  inches  square,  being  the  trunk  of  a  tree 
of  that  species  of  wood,  generally  brought  to  a  square,  for  the  use  of  building. 

Bead. — A  round  moulding  commonly  made  upon  the  edge  of  a  piece  of  stuff.  Of  beads 
there  are  two  kinds;  one  flush  with  the  surface,  called  a  quirk-bead,  and  the  other  raised, 
called  a  cock-bead. 

Beam. — A  horizontal  timber,  used  to  resist  a  force  or  weight ;  as  a  tic-beam,  where  it 
acts  as  a  string  or  chain,  by  its  tension  ;  as  a  collar-beam,  where  it  acts  by  compression; 
as  a  bressummer,  where  it  resists  a  transverse  insisting  Aveight. 

Bearer. — Any  thing  used  by  way  of  support  to  another. 

Bearing. — The  distance  in  which  a  "beam  or  rafter  is  suspended  in  the  clear  :  thus, 
if  a  piece  of  timber  rests  upon  two  oppo.site  walls,  the  span  of  the  void  is  called  the  bearing, 
and  not  the  whole  length  of  the  timber. 

Bench. — A  platform  supported  on  four  legs,  and  used  for  planing  upon,  «S;c. 

Bevel. — One  side  is  said  to  be  bevelled  with  respect  to  another,  when  the  angle  formed 
by  these  two  sides  is  greater  or  less  than  a  right  angle. 

Bird's  Mouth  — An  interior  angle,  formed  on  the  end  of  a  piece  of  timber,  so  that  it 
may  re.st  firmly  upon  the  exterior  angle  of  another  piece. 

Blade. — An  part  of  a  tool  that  is  broad  and  thin  ;  as  the  blade  of  an  axe,  of  an  adze, 
of  a  chisel,  «&c. :  but  the  blade  of  a  saw  is  generally  called  the  plate. 

Blockings. — Small  pieces  of  wood,  fitted  in,  or  glued,  or  fixed,  to  the  interior  angle 
of  two  boards  or  other  pieces,  in  order  to  give  strength  to  the  joint. 

Board. — A  substance  of  wood  contained  between  two  parallel  planes:  as  when  the 
baulk  is  divided  into  several  pieces  by  the  pit-saw,  (he  pieces  are  called  boards.  The 
section  of  boards  is  sometimes,  however,  of  a  triangular,  or  rather  trapezoidal  form  ;  that 
is,  with  one  edge  very  thin  ;  tiiese  are  caWed  feather-edged  boards. 

Bond-Timbers. — Horizontal  pieces,    built  in  stone  or  brick  walls,  for  strengthening 
them,  and  securing  the  battening,  lath,  and  plaster,  &c. 
Bottom  Rail. — The  lowest  rail  of  a  door. 


TERMS    USED   IN  CARPENTRY    AND   JOINERY.  85 

Boxings  op  a  Window. — The  two  cases,  one  on  each  side  of  a  window,  into  which 
the  shutters  are  folded. 

Brace. — A  piece  of  slanting  timber,  used  in  truss-partitions,  or  in  framed  roofs,  in 
order  to  form  a  triangle,  and  thereby  rendering  the  frame  immoveable  ;  when  a  brace  is 
used  by  way  of  support  to  a  rafter,  it  is  called  a  strut.  Braces,  in  partitions  and  span- 
roofs,  are  always,  or  should  be,  di.sposed  in  pairs,  and  placed  in  opposite  directions. 

Brace  and  Bits. — The  same  as  stork  and  bits,  as  explained  hereafter. 

Brad. — A  small  nail,  having  no  head  except  on  one  edge.  The  intention  is  to  drive 
it  within  the  surface  of  the  wood,  by  means  of  a  hammer  and  punch,  and  to  fill  the  cavity 
flush  to  the  surface  with  putty. 

Breaking  Down,  in  sawing,  is  dividing  the  baulk  into  boards  or  planks  ;  but,  if  planks 
are  sawed  longitudinally,  through  their  thickness,  the  saw-way  is  called  a  ripping-cut, 
and  the  former  a  breaking-cut. 

To  Break-in. — To  cut  or  break  a  hole  in  brick- work,  with  the  ripping-chisel,  for  in- 
serting timber,  &c. 

Breaking-Joint  is  the  joint  formed  by  the  meeting  of  several  heading  joints  in  one 
continued  line,  which  is  sometimes  the  case  in  folding  doors. 

Bressummer  or  Breastsummer. — A  beam  supporting  a  superincumbent  part  of  an 
exterior  wall,  and  running  longitudinally  below  that  part. — See  Summer. 

Bridged  Gutters. — Gutters  made  with  boards,  supported  below  with  bearers,  and 
covered  with  lead. 

Bridging-Floors. — Floors  in  which  bridging-joints  are  used. 

Bridging  Joists. — The  smallest  beams  in  naked  flooring,  for  supporting  the  boarding 
for  walking  upon. 

Butting-Joint. — The  junction  formed  by  the  surfaces  of  two  pieces  of  wood,  of  which 
one  surface  is  perpendicular  to  the  fibres,  and  the  other  in  their  direction,  or  making  witii 
them  an  oblique  angle. 

Camber. — The  convexity  of  a  beam  upon  the  upper  edge,  in  order  to  prevent  its  be- 
coming straight  or  concave  by  its  own  weight,  or  by  the  burden  it  may  have  to  sustain, 
in  course  of  lime. 

Camber  Beams. — Those  beams  used  in  the  flats  of  truncated  roofs,  and  raised  in  the 
middle  with  an  obtuse  angle,  for  discharging  the  rain-water  towards  both  sides  of  the  roof. 

Cantalivers. — Horizontal  rows  of  timber,  projecting  at  right  angles  from  the  naked 
part  of  a  wall,  for  sustaining  the  eaves  or  other  mouldings.  Sometimes  they  are  planed 
on  the  horizontal  or  vertical-  sides,  and  sometimes  the  carpentry  is  rough  and  cased 
with  joinery. 

Carriage  of  a  Stair. — The  timber  work  which  supports  the  steps. 

Carcase  of  a  Building. — The  naked  walls,  and  the  rough  timber-work  of  the  flooring 
and  quarter  partitions,  before  the  building  is  plastered  or  the  floors  laid. 

Carry-up. — A  term  used  among  builders  or  workmen,  denoting  that  the  walls,  or  other 
parts,  are  intended  to  be  built  to  a  certain  given  height ;  thus  the  carpenter  will  say  to 
the  bricklayer.  Carry  up  that  icall ;  carry  iqj  that  stack  of  chimneys  ;  which  means,  build 
up  that  wall  or  stack  of  chimneys. 

Casting  or  Warping. — The  bending  of  the  surfaces  of  a  piece  of  Wood  from  their 
original  position,  either  by  the  weight  of  the  wood,  or  by  an  unequal  exposure  to  the 
weather,  or  "by  unequal  texture  of  the  wood. 

Chamfering. — Cutting  the  edge  of  any  thing,  originally  right  angled,  a^slope  or  bevel. 

Clamp. — A  piece  of  wood  fixed  to  the  -end  of  a  thin  board,  by  mortise  and  tenon,  or  by 
groove  and  tongue;  so  that  the  fibres  of  the  one  piece,  thus  fixed,  traverse  those  of  the 
board,  and  by  this  means  prevent  it  from  casting :  the  piece  at  the  end  is  called  a  clamp 
and  the  board  is  said  to  be  clamped. 

22 


86  TERMS   USED   IN    CARPENTRY   AND   JOINERY. 

Clear  StoRy  Windows,  are  those  that  have  no  transom. 

Cross-grained  Stuff,  is  that  which  has  its  fibres  running  in  contrary  positions  to 
the  surfaces  ;  and  consequently,  cannot  be  made  perfectly  smooth,  when  planed  in  one  - 
direction,  without  turning  it  or  turning  the  plane. 

Crown-Post. — The  middle  post  of  a  truss  roof. — See  King-Post. 

Curling  Stuff. — That  which  is  occasioned  by  the  winding  or  coiling  of  the  fibres 
round  the  boughs  of  a  tree,  when  they  begin  to  shoot  from  the  trunk. 

Deal  Timber. — The  timber  of  the  fir  tree,  as  cut  into  boards,  planks,  &c.  for  the  use 
of  building. 

Discharge. — A  post  trimmed  up  under  a  beam,  or  part  of  a  building  which  is  weak 
or  overcharged  by  weight. 

Door  Frame. — The  surrounding  case  of  a  door,  into  which,  and  out  of  which,  the  door 
shuts  and  opens. 

Dormer  or  Dormer- Window. — A  projecting  window,  in  the  roof  of  a  house;  the 
glass  frame,  or  casements,  being  set  vertically,  and  not  in  the  inclined  sides  of  the  roofs : 
thus  dormers  are  distinguished  from  skyliglits,  which  have  their  sides  inclined  to  the 
horizon. 

Drag. — A  door  is  said  to  drag  when  it  rubs  on  the  floor.  This  arises  from  the  loosen- 
ing of  the  hinges,  or  the  settling  of  the  building. 

Dragon-Beam. — The  piece  of  timber  which  supports  the  hip-rafter,  and  bisects  the 
angle  formed  by  the  wall-plates. 

Dragon-Piece. — A  beam  bisecting  the  wall-plate,  for  receiving  the  heel  or  foot  of  the 
hip-rafters. 

Edging. — Reducing  the  edges  of  ribs  or  rafters,  externally  or  internally,  so  as  to  range 
in  a  plane,  or  in  any  curved  surface  required.  I 

Enter. — When  the  end  of  a  tenon  is  put  into  a  mortise,  it  is  said  to  enter  the  mortise. 

Face-Mould. — A  mould  for  drawing  the  proper  figure  of  a  hand-rail  on  both  sides 
of  the  plank  ;  so  that,  when  cut  by  a  saw,  held  at  a  required  inclination,  the  two  surfaces 
of  the  rail-piece,  when  laid  in  the  right  position,  will  be  every  where  perpendicular  to 
the  plan. 

Fang. — The  narrow  part  of  the  iron  of  any  instrument  which  passes  into  the  stock. 

Frather-edged  Boards. — Boards,  thicker  at  one  edge  than  the  other,  and  commonly 
used  in  the  facing  of  wooden  walls,  and  for  the  covering  of  inclined  roofs,  &c. 

Fence  of  a  Pbane. — A  guard,  which  obliges  it  to  work  to  a  certain  horizontal  breadth 
from  the  arris. 

FiLLiNG-iN  Pieces. — Short  timbers,  less  than  the  full  length,  as  the  jack-rafters  of  a 
roof,  the  puncheons,  or  short  quarters,  in  partitions,  betweeia  braces  and  sills,  or  head- 
pieces. 

Fine-set. — A  plane  is  said  to  be  fine  set,  when  the  sole  of  the  plane  so  projects  as  to- 
take  a  very  thin  .broad  shaving. 

Fir  Poles. — Small  trunks  of  fir  trees,  from  ten  to  sixteen  feet  in  length,  u.sed  in  rustic 
buildings  and  out-houses. 

Free  Stuff.— That  timber  or  stufif  which  is  quite  clean,  or  without  knots,  and  works 
easily,  without  tearing. 

Frowy  Stuff. — The  same  as  free  stuC 

Furkings. — Slips  of  timber  nailed  to  joists  or  rafters,  in  order  to  bring  them  to  a  lerel, 
and  to  range  them  into  a  straight  surface,  when  the  timbers  are  sagged,  either  by  casting, 
or  by  a  set  which  they  have  obtained  by  their  weight,  in  length  of  time. 

Girder. — The  principal  beam  in  a  floor  for  supporting  the  binding-joints. 
Glue. — A  tenacious  viscid  matter,  which  is  used  as  a  cement,  by  carpenters,  join- 
ers, &c. 


TERMS  USED  IN  CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY  87 

Glues  are  found  to  differ  very  much  from  each  other,  in  their  consistence,  colour,  taste 
smell,  and  solubility.  Some  will  dissolv  e  in  cold  water,  by  agitation  ;  while  others  are 
soluble  only  at  the  point  of  ebullition.  The  best  glue  is  generally  admitted  to  be  trans* 
parent,  and  of  a  brown  yellow  colour,  without  either  taste  or  smell.  It  is  perfectly 
soluble  in  water,  forming  a  viscous  fluid,  which  when  dry,  preserves  its  tenacity  and 
transparency  in  every  part;  and  has  solidity,  colour,  and  viscidity,  in  proportion  to  the 
age  and  strength  of  the  animal  from  which  it  is  produced.  To  distinguish  good  glue 
from  bad,  it  is  necessary  to  hold  it  between  the  eye  and  the  light ;  and  if  it  appears  of  a 
strong  dark  brown  colour,  and  free  from  cloudy  or  black  spots,  it  may  be  pronounced  to 
be  good.  The  best  glue  may  likewise  be  known  by  immersing  it  in  cold  water  for  three 
or  four  days,  and  if  it  swells  considerably  without  melting,  and  afterwards  regains  its 
former  dimensions  and  properties  by  being  dried,  the  article  is  of  the  best  quality. 

In  preparing  glue  for  use,  it  should  be  softened  and  swelled  by  steeping  it  in  cold  water 
for  a  number  of  hours.  It  should  then  be  dissolved,  by  gently  boiling  it  till  it  is  of  a 
proper  consistence  to  be  easily  brushed  over  any  surface,  A  portion  of  water  is  added 
to  glue,  to  make  it  of  a  proper  consistency,  which  proportion  may  be  taken  at  about  a 
quart  of  water  to  half  a  pound  of  glue.  In  order  to  hinder  the  glue  from  being  burned, 
during  the  process  of  boiling,  the  vessel  containing  the  glue  is  generally  suspended  ia 
another  vessel,  which  is  made  of  copper,  and  resembles  in  form  a  tea-kettle  without  a 
spout.  This  latter  vessel  contains  only  water,  and  alone  receives  the  direct  influence 
of  the  fire. 

A  little  attention  to  the  following  circumstances  will  tend,  in  no  small  degree,  to  give 
glue  its  full  effect  in  uniting  perfectly  two  pieces  of  wood :  first,  that  the  glue  be  tho- 
roughly melted,  and  used  while  boiling  hot;  secondly,  that  the  wood  be  perfectly  dry 
and  warm  ;  and,  lastly,  that  the  surfaces  to  be  united  should  be  covered  only  with  a  thin 
coat  of  glue,  and  after  having  been  strongly  pressed  together,  left  in  a  moderately  warm 
situation,  till  the  glue  is  completely  dry.  When  it  so  happens  that  the  face  of  surfaces 
to  be  glued  cannot  be  conveniently  compressed  together  in  any  great  degree,  they  should, 
as  soon  as  besmeared  with  the  glue,  be  rubbed  lengthwise,  one  on  the  other,  several 
times,  in  order  thereby  (o  settle  them  close.  When  all  the  above  circumstances  cannot 
be  combined  in  the  same  operation,  the  hotness  of  the  glue  and  the  dryness  of  the  wood 
should,  at  all  events,  be  attended  to. 

The  qualities  of  the  glue  are  often  impaired  by  frequent  meltings.  This  may  be  known 
to  be  the  case  when  it  becomes  of  a  dark  and  almost  black  colour ;  its  proper  colour 
being  a  light  ruddy  brown  :  yet,  even  then,  it  may  be  restored,  by  boiling  it  over  again, 
refining  it,  and  adding  a  sufficient  quantity  of  fresh  :  but  the  fresh  is  seldom  put  into  the 
kettle  till  what  is  in  it  has  been  purged  by  a  second  boiling. 

If  common  glue  be  melted  with  the  smallest  possible  quantity  of  water,  and  well  mixed 
by  degrees  with  linseed  oil,  rendered  dry  by  boiling  it  with  litharge,  f^luc  i^^ay  be  ob- 
tained that  will  not  dissolve  in  water.  By  boiling  common  glue  in  sl^imed  milk  the 
game  effect  may  be  produced. 

A  small  portion  of  finely  levigated  chalk  is  sometimes  added  to  the  common  solution 
of  glue  in  water,  to  strengthen  it  and  fit  it  for  standing  the  weather. 

A  glue  that  will  resist  both  fire  and  water  may  be  prepared  by  mixing  a  handful 
of  quick  lime  with  four  ounces  of  linseed  oil,  thoroughly  levigated,  and  then  boiled  to  a 
good  thickness,  and  kept  in  the  shade,  on  tin-plates,  to  dry.  It  may  be  rendered  fit  for 
use  by  boiling  it  over  a  fire  like  common  glue. 

Grind  Stone. — A  cylindrical  stone,  by  which,  on  its  being  turned  round  its  axis,  edge- 
tools  are  sharpened,  by  applying  the  basil  to  the  convex  surface. 

Ground-Plate  or  Sill. — The  lowest  plate  of  a  wooden  building  for  supporting  the 
principal  and  other  posts. 


88  TERMS  USED  IN  CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 

Grounds. — Pieces  of  wood  concealed  in  a  wall,  to  which  the  facings  or  finishings  are 
attached^  and  having  their  surfaces  flush  with  the  plaster. 

Handspike. — A  lever  for  carrynig  a  beam,  or  other  body,  the  weight  being  placed  in 
the  middle,  and  supported  at  each  end  by  a  man. 

Hanging  Stile. — The  stile  of  a  door  or  shutter  to  which  the  hinge  is  fastened:  also, 
a  narrow  style  fixed  to  the  jamb  on  which  a  door  or  shutter  is  frequently  hung. 

Hip-Roof. — A  roof  the  ends  of  which  rise  immediately  from  the  wall-plate,  with  the 
same  inclination  to  the  horizon,  and  its  other  two  sides.  The  Backing  of  a  H'qi  is  the 
angle  made  on  its  upper  edge  to  range  with  the  two  sides  or  planes  of  the  roof  between 
which  it  is  placed. 

Hoarding. — An  enclosure  of  wood  about  a  building,  while  erecting  or  repairing. 

Jack  Kafters. — All  tho.se  sort  of  rafters  which  meet  the  hips. 

Jack  Ribs. — Those  short  ribs  which  meet  the  angle  ribs,  as  in  groined  domes,  &c. 

Jack  Ti.mber. — A  timber  shorter  than  the  whole  length  of  other  pieces  in  the  same 
..range. 

Intertie. — A  horizontal  piece  of  timber,  framed  between  two  posts,  in  order  to  tie 
:them  together. 

Joggle-Piece. — A  tru«s-post,  with  shoulders  and  sockets  for  'abutting  and  fixing  the 
lower  ends  of  the  struts. 

Joists. — Those  beams  in  a  floor  which  support,  or  are  necessary  in  the  supporting, 
of  the  boarding  or  ceiling ;  as  the  binding,  bridging,  and  ceiling  joists ;  girders  are,  how- 
ever, to  be  excepted,  as  not  being  joists. 

JuFFERs. — StuflT  of  about  four  or  five  inches  square,  and  of  several  lengths.  This  term 
is  out  of  use  though  frequently  found  in  old  books. 

Kerf. — The  way  which  a  saw  makes  in  dividing  a  piece  of  wood  into  two  parts. 

King-Post. — The  middle  post  of  a  trussed  roof,  for  supporting  the  tie-beam  at  the 
middle  and  lower  ends  of  the  struts. 

Knee. — A  piece  of  timber  cut  Kt  an  angle,  or  having  grooves  at  an  angle.  In  hand- 
railing  a  knee  is  part  of  the  back,  with  a  convex  curvature,  and  therefore  the  reverse  of  a 
ramp,  which  is  hollow  on  the  back. 

Knot. — That  part  of  a  piece  of  timber  where  a  branch  had  issued  out  of  the  trunk. 

Lining  of  a  Wall. — A  timber  boarding,  of  which  the  edges  are  either  rebated  or 
grooved  and  tongued. 

Lintels. — Short  beams  over  the  heads  of  doors  and  windows,  for  supporting  the  inside 
of  an  exterior  wall ;  and  the  super-incumbent  part  over  doors,  in  brick  or  stone  partitiona. 

Lower  Rail. — The  rail  at  the  foot  of  a  door  next  to  the  floor. 

Lying  Panel. — A  panel  with  the  fibres  of  the  wood  disposed  horizontally. 

Margins  or  Margents. — The  flat  part  of  the  stiles  and  rails  of  framed  work. 

Middle  RAi^^The  rail  of  a  door  which  is  upon  a  level  with  the  hand  when  hung 
freely  and  benmig  the  joint  of  the  wrist.  The  back  of  the  door  is  generally  fixed  in 
this  rail. 

Mitre; — If  two  pieces  of  wood  be  formed  to  equal  angles,  or  if  the  two  sides  of  each 
piece  form  equal  inclinations,  and  two  sides,  one  of  each  piece,  be  joined  togerther  at  their 
common  vortex,  so  as  to  make  an  angle,  or  an  inclination,  double  to  that  of  either  piece, 
they  are  said  to  be  mitred  together,  and  the  joint  is  called  the  mitre. 

Mortise  and  Tenon. — The  tenon,  in  general,  may  be  taken  at  about  one  third  of  the 
thickness  of  the  stuff". 

When  the  mortise  and  tenon  are  to  lie  horizontaHy,  as  the  juncture  will  thus  be  un- 
supported, the  tenon  should  not  be  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  thickness  of  the  stuff;  in 
order  that  the  strain  on  the  upper  s-urface  of  the  tcRoned  piece  may  not  split  oflf  the  under 
cheek  of  the  mortise. 


TERMS  USED  IN  CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY.  89 

When  the  piece  that  is  tenoned  is  not  to  pass  the  end  of  the  mortised  piece,  the;tenon 
should  be  reduced  one-third  or  one-fourth  of  its  breadth,  to  prevent  the  necessity  of  open- 
ing one  side  of  the  tenon.  As  there  is  always  some  danger  of  splitting  the  end  of  the 
piece  in  which  the  mortise  is  made,  the  end  beyond  the  mortise  should,  as  often  as  possi- 
ble, be  made  considerably  longer  than  it  is  intended  to  remain  ;  so  that  the  tenon  may  be 
driven  tightly  in,  and  the  superfluous  wood  cut  oft' afterwards. 

But  the  above  regulations  may  be  varied,  according  as  the  tenoned  or  mortised  piece 
is  weaker  or  stronger. 

The  labour  of  making  deep  mortises,  in  hard  wood,  may  be  lessened,  by  first  boring  a 
number  of  holes  with  the  auger,  in  the  part  to  be  mortised,  as  the  compartments  betAveen 
may  then  more  easily  be  cut  away  by  the  chisel. 

Before  employing  the  saw  to  cut  the  shoulder  of  a  tenon,  in  neat  work,  if  the  line  of  its 
entrance  be  correctly  determined  by  nicking  the  place  with  a  paring  chisel,  there  will  be 
no  danger  of  the  wood  being  torn  at  the  edges  by  the  saw. 

As  the  neatness  and  durability  of  a  juncture  depend  entirely  on  the  sides  of  the  mortise 
coming  exactly  in  contact  with  the  sides  of  the  tenon  ;  and,  as  this  is  not  easily  performed 
when  a  mortise  is  to  pass  entirely  through  a  piece  of  stufT,  the  space  allotted  for  it  should 
be  first  of  all  correctly  guaged  on  both  sides.  One-half  is  then  to  be  cut  from  one  side, 
and  the  other  half  from  the  opposite  side  ;  and  as  any  irregularities  which  may  arise  from 
an  error  in  the  direction  of  the  chisel,  Avill  thus  be  confined  to  the  middle  of  the  mortise, 
they  will  be  of  very  little  hindrance  to  the  exact  fitting  of  the  sides  of  the  mortise  and 
tenon.  Moreover,  as  the  tenon  is  expanded  by  wedges  after  it  is  driven  in,  the  sides 
of  the  mortise  may,  in  a  small  degree,  be  inclined  towards  each  other,  near  the  shoulders 
of  the  tenon. 

MuLLioN  OR  MuNNioN. — A  large  vertical  bar  of  a  window-frame,  separating  two  case- 
ments, or  glass-frames,  from  each  other. 

Vertical  mullions  are  called  munnions ;  and  those  which  extend  horizontally  are 
transoms. 

MuNTiNS  OR  MoNTANTS. — The  Vertical  pieces  of  the  frame  of  a  door  between  the  stiles. 

Naked  Flooring. — The  timber-work  of  a  floor  for  supporting  the  boarding,  or  ceiling, 
or  both. 

Newel. — The  post  in  dog-legged  stairs,  where  the  winders  terminate,  and  to  which 
the  adjacent  string-boards  are  fixed. 

Ogee. — A  moulding,  the  transverse  section  of  which  consists  of  two  curves  of  contrary 
flexure. 

Panel.— A  thin  board,  having  all  its  edges  inserted  in  the  groove  of  a  surrounding 
frame. 

Pitch  of  a  Roof. — The  Inclination  which  the  sloping  sides  make  with  the  plane,  or 
level  of  the  wall-plate  ;  or  it  is  the  proportion  which  arises  by  dividing  the  span  by  the 
height.  Thus,  if  it  be  asked.  What  is  the  pitch  of  such  a  roof.'  tfee  answer  is,  one- 
quarter,  one-third,  or  half.  When  the  pitch  is  half,  the  roof  is  a  square,  which  is  the 
highest  that  is  now  in  use,  or  that  i.s  necessary  in  practice. 

Plank. — All  boards  above  one  inch  thick  are  caW ed  ^ilanks. 

Plate. — A  horizontal  piece  of  timber  in  a  wall,  generally  flush  with  the  inside,  for 
resting  the  ends  of  beams,  joists,  or  rafters,  upon  ;  and,  therefore,  denominated  floor  or 
roof  plates. 

Post. — All  upright  or  vertical  pieces  of  timber  whatever ;  truss-posts,  door-posts, 
quarters  in  partitions,  «&;c. 

Prick  Posts. — Intermediate  posts  in  a  wooden  building,  framed  between  principal 
posts. 

Principal  Posts. — The  corner  posts  of  a  wooden  building. 

23 


90  TERMS  USED  IN  CARPENTRY  AND  JOINERY. 

PuDLAiES. — Pieces  of  timber  to  serve  the  purpose  of  handspikes. 

Pdnchions. — Any  short  post  of  timber.  The  small  quarterings  in  a  stud  partition 
above  the  head  of  a  door,  are  also  called  jvuichions. 

Purlins. — The  horizontal  timbers  in  the  sides  of  a  roof,  for  supporting  the  spars  or 
small  rafters. 

Quartering. — The  stud  work  of  a  partition. 

Quarters. — The  timbers  to  be  used  in  stud  partitions,  bond  in  walls,  &c. 

Rafters. — All  the  inclined  timbers  in  the  sides  of  a  roof;  as  principal  rafters,  hip 
rafters,  and  common  rafters ;  the  latter  are  called  in  most  countries,  spars. 

Rails. — The  horizontal  pieces  which  contain  the  tenons  in  a  piece  of  framing,  in  Avhich 
the  upper  and  lower  edges  of  the  panels  are  inserted. 

Raising  Plates  TopPlates.— The  plates  on  which  the  roof  is  raised. 

Rank-set. — The  edge  of  the  iron  of  a  plane  is  said  to  be  rank-set  when  it  projects 
considerably  belovs^  the  sole. 

Return. — In  any  body  with  two  surfaces,  joining  each  other  at  an  angle,  one  of  the 
surfaces  is  said  to  return  in  respect  of  the  other ;  or,  if  standing  before  one  surface,  so 
that  the  eye  may  be  in  a  straight  line  with  the  other,  or  nearly  so :  this  last  is  said  to 
return. 

Ridge. — The  meeting  of  the  rafters  on  the  vertical  angle,  or  highest  part  of  a  roof. 

Risers. — The  vertical  sides  of  the  steps  of  stairs. 

Roof. — The  covering  of  a  house  ;  but  the  word  is  used  in  carpentry  for  the  wood-work 
which  supports  the  slating,  or  other  covering. 

Scantling. — The  transverse  dimensions  of  a  piece  of  timber ;  sometimes,  also  the 
small  timbers  in  roofing  and  flooring  are  called  scantlings. 

Scarfing. — A  mode  of  joining  two  pieces  of  timber,  by  bolting  or  nailing  them  trans- 
versely together,  so  that  the  two  appear  but  as  one.  The  joint  is  called  a  scarf,  and 
timbers  are  said  to  be  scarfed. 

Shaken  Stuff. — Such  timber  as  is  rent  or  split  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  or  by  the  fall 
of  the  tree,  is  said  to  be  shaken. 

Shingles. — Thin  pieces  of  wood  used  for  covering,  instead  of  tiles,  «S;c. 

Shreadings. — A  term  not  much  used  at  pi'esent. 

Skirtings  or  Skirting  Boards. — The  narrow  boards  round  the  margin  of  a  floor, 
forming  a  plinth  for  the  base  of  the  (ZfwZo,  or  simply  a  plinth  for  the  room  itself,  when 
there  is  no  dado. 

Skirts  of  a  Roof. — The  projecture  of  the  eaves. 

Sleepers. — Pieces  of  timber  for  resting  the  ground-joists  of  a  floor  upon,  or  for  fixing 
the  planking  to,  in  a  bad  foundation.  The  term  was  formerly  applied  to  the  vaUcy-r afters 
of  a  roof 

Spars. — A  teu^  bv  which  the  common  rafters  of  a  roof  are  best  known  in  almost  every 
provincial  town  m  (^ireat  Britain ;  though,  generally,  called  in  London  common  rafters,  in 
order  to  distinguish  them  from  the  principal  rafters. 

Staff. — A  piece  of  wood  fixed  to  the  external  angle  of  the  two  upright  sides  of  a  wall, 
for  floating  the  plaster  to,  and  for  defending  the  angle  against  accidents. 

Stiles  of  a  Door,  are  the  vertical  parts  of  the  framing  at  the  edges  of  the  door. 

Struts. — Pieces  of  timber  which  support  the  rafters,  and  which  are  supported  by  the 
truss-posts. 

Summer. — A  large  beam  in  a  building,  either  disposed  in  an  outside  Avail,  or  in  the 
middle  of  an  apartment,  parallel  to  such  wall.  When  a  summer  is  placed  under  a  super- 
incumbent part  of  an  outside  wall,  it  is  called  a  bressummer,  as  it  comes  in  abreast  with 
the  front  of  the  building. 

Surbase. — The  upper  base  of  a  room,  or  rather  the  cornice  of  the  pedestal  of  the  room, 


ORNAMENTAL  MASONRY.  91 

which  serves  to  finish  the  dado,  and  to  secure  the  plaster  against  accidents  from  the 
backs  of  chairs,  and  other,  furniture  on  tlie  same  level. 

Taper. — The  form  of  a  piece  of  wood  which  arises  from  one  end  of  a  piece  being  nar- 
rower than  the  other. 

Texon. — See  Mortise. 

Tie. — A  piece  of  timber,  placed  in  any  position,  and  acting  as  a  string  or  tie,  to  keep 
two  things  together  which  have  a  tendency  to  a  more  remote  distance  from  each  other. 

Tr.vnso.m  Windows. — Those  windows  which  have  horizontal  mullions. 

Trimmers — Joists  into  which  other  joists  are  framed. 

Trim.ming  Joists. — The  two  joists  into  which  a  trimmer  is  framed. 

Truncated  Roof. — A  roof  with  a  flat  on  the  top. 

Truss. — A  frame  constructed  of  several  pieces  of  timber,  and  divided  into  two  or  more 
triangles  by  oblique  pieces,  in  order  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  its  revolving  round  any 
of  ihe  angles  of  the  frame. 

Trussed  Roop. — A  roof  so  constructed  within  the  exterior  triangular  frame,  as  to  sup- 
port the  principal  rafters  and  the  tie-beam  at  certain  given  points. 

Truss-Post. — Any  of  the  posts  of  a  trussed  roof,  as  a  king-post,  queen-post,  or  side-post, 
or  posts  into  which  the  braces  are  formed  in  a  trussed  partition. 

Trussels. — Four-legged  stools  for  ripping  and  cross-cutting  timber  upon. 

Tusk. — The  bevelled  upper  shoulder  of  a  tenon,  made  in  order  to  give  strength  to  the 
tenon. 

Uphers. — Fir-poles  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  long,  and  from  four  to  seven  inches  in 
diameter,  commonly  hewn  on  the  sides,  so  as  not  to  reduce  the  wane  entirely.  When 
slit  they  are  frequently  employed  in  slight  roofs  :  but  mostly  used  whole  for  scaitolding 
and  ladders. 

Valley  Rafter. — That  rafter  which  is  disposed  in  the  internal  angle  of  a  roof. 

Wall  Plates. — The  joist  plates  and  raising  plates. 

Web  of  an  Iron. — The  broad  part  of  it  which  comes  to  the  sole  of  the  plane. 

ORNAMENTAL  BIASONRY. 

COLUMNS. — These  comprise,  generally,  a  conoidal  shaft,  with  a  small  diminution 
towards  their  upper  diameter,  amounting,  generally,  to  about  one-sixth  less  than  the 
lower  diameter.  The  proportion  of  columns,  from  the  Egyptians,  varied  but  little ;  the 
columns  of  this  people,  in  their  larger  temples,  amounting  to  only  about  four  and  a  half 
diameters  in  height.  Those  of  Greece,  as  in  the  Parflienon,  at  Athens,  are  little  more 
than  five.  In  the  best  Roman  examples,  the  proportion  was  increased  to  uj)^ward  of  seven 
diameters.  The  columns  oi  all  the  Grecian  remains  are  fluted  through  in  different  man- 
mers.  The  Doric  shafts  have  their  flutes  in  very  flat  segments,  finished  to  an  arris : 
sometimes  flutings  of  the  semi-ellipse  shape,  with  fillets,  were  adopted. 

The  genius  of  an  architect  is  generally  displayed  in  the  application  of  columns.  The 
Greeks  surrounded  their  public  walks  with  them  ;  their  porticos  carried  this  kind 
of  spendour  to  its  highest  pitch  ;  as  in  them  may  be  found  the  whole  syntax  of  archi- 
tecture and  masonry.  To  construct  a  temple,  in  the  Greek  manner,  required  the  greatest 
taste  and  judgment,  combined  with  a  perfect  knowledge  of  architecture.  The  Parthenon, 
at  Athens,  exhibits,  or  rather  did  exhibit,  the  most  elaborate  display  of  masonry  in  the 
world. 

The  comparatively  perfect  state  in  which  the  monuments  of  Greece  remain,  is  a  proof 
of  the  great  judgment  with  which  they  were  constructed.  The  famous  Templeof  Minerva 
would  have  been  entire  to  this  day,  if  it  had  not  been  destroyed  by  a  bomb.     The 


92  ORNAMENTAL   MASONRY. 

Propylca,  which  was  used  as  a  magazine  for  powder,  was  struck  by  lightning  and  blown 
up.  The  Temple  of  Theseus,  having  escaped  accidental  destruction,  is  almost  as  entire 
as  when  first  erected.  The  little  choragic  monument  of  Thrasybulus,  as  well  as  that 
of  Lysicrates,  are  also  entire.  These  instances  should  impress  on  modern  architects  the 
utility  of  employing  large  blocks,  and  of  uniting  them  with  the  greatest  accuracy  ;  Avith- 
out  which,  masonry  is  not  superior  to  brick  laying.  The  core  of  the  rubble-work  of  the 
Grecian  walls  is  impenetrable  to  a  tool ;  Avhich  is  an  additional  proof  of  the  care  which 
was  taken  in  cementing  their  masonry. 

The  joining  of  columns  in  free-stone,  has  been  found  more  difficult  than  in  marble  ;  and 
the  practise  used  by  the  French  masons,  to  avoid  the  failure  of  the  two  arrisses  of  the 
joint,  might  be  borrowed  with  success  for  constructing  columns  of  some  of  our  softer 
kinds  of  free-stone.  It  consists  in  taking  away  the  edge  of  the  joints,  by  which  means  a 
groove  is  formed  at  every  one  throughout  the  whole  column.  This  method  is  employed 
only  in  plain  shafts.  It  appears  to  have  been  occasionally  used  by  the  ancients,  though 
for  a  different  purpose :  viz.  to  admit  the  shaft  to  be  adorned  with  flowers,  and  other 
insignia,  on  the  occasion  of  tlieir  shows  and  games.  In  the  French  capitol,  they  affix 
rows  of  lamps  on  their  columns,  making  use  of  these  grooves  to  adjust  them  regularly, 
which  produces  a  very  good  efl'ect. 

The  shafts  of  columns,  in  large  works,  intended  to  be  adorned  by  flutes,  are  erected 
plain,  and  the  flutings  chisseled  out  afterwards.  The  ancients  commonly  formed  the 
two  extreme  ends  of  the  fluting  previously,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  remaining  columns 
of  the  Temple  of  Apollo,  in  the  Island  of  Delos ;  a  pi-actice  admitting  great  accuracy 
and  neatness.  The  finishing  the  detail  of  both  sculpture  and  masonry  on  the  building 
itself,  was  an  universal  practice  among  the  ancients  :  they  raised  their  columns  first  in 
rough  blocks,  on  them  they  placed  the  architraves  and  friezes,  and  surmounted  the 
wdiole  by  the  cornice ;  finishing  down  only  such  parts  as  could  not  be  got  at  in  the 
building;  hence,  pei'haps,  in  some  measure,  arose  that  striking  proportion  of  parts, 
together  with  the  beautiful  curvature  and  finish  given  to  all  the  profiles  in  Grecian 
buildings. 

PILASTERS,  in  modern  design,  are  frequently  very  capriciously  applied.  They  are 
vertical  shafts  of  square-edged  stone,  having  but  a  small  projection,  with  capitals  and 
bases  like  columns  ;  they  are  often  jjlaced  by  us  on  the  face  of  the  wall,  and  with  a  cor- 
nice over  them.  In  Greek  architecture,  they  are  to  be  met  with  commonly  on  the  ends 
of  the  walls,  behind  the  columns,  in  which  application  their  face  was  made  double  the 
width  of  their  sides  ;  their  capitals  differing  materially  from  those  of  the  accompanying  ' 
columns,  and  somewhat  larger  at  bottom  than  ai  top,  but  without  any  entasis  or  swell. 

PARAPETS. — Parapets  are  very  ornamental  to  the  upper  parts  of  an  edifice.  They 
were  used  byihe  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  are  composed  of  three  parts ;  viz  the  plijith, 
which  is  theTOlofeking  course  to  the  cornice;  the  shaft,  or  die,  which  is  the  part  immedi- 
ately above  the  plinth  ;  and  a  cornice,  which  is  on  its  top,  and  projects  in  its  moulding, 
sufficiently  to  carry  off  the  rain  water  from  the  shaft  and  plinth.  In  buildings  of  the 
Corinthian  style,  the  .shaft  of  the  parapet  is  perforated  in  the  parts  immediately  over  the 
apertures  in  the  elevation,  and  balustrade-enclosures  are  inserted  in  the  perforations. — 
The  architects  have  devised  the  parapet  with  reference  to  the  roof  of  the  building  which 
it  is  intended  to  obscure. 

ASHLARING  is  a  term  used  by  masons  to  designate  the  plain  stone  work  of  the  front 
of  a  building,  in  which  all  that  is  regarded  is  getting  the  stone  to  a  smooth  face,  called 
its  j)lain  work.  The  courses  should  not  be  too  high,  and  the  joints  should  be  crossed 
regularly,  which  will  improve  its  appearance,  and  add  to  its  solidity. 

GILLS. —These  belong  to  the  apertures  of  the  doors  and  windows,  at  the  bottom  of 
which  they  are  fixed ;  their  thickness  varies,  but  is  commonly  about  one  inch  and  a 


ORNAMENTAL    MASONRY.  93 

half;  they  are  also  fluted  on  their  under  edges,  and  sunk  on  their  upper  sides,  projecting 
about  two  inches,  in  general,  beyond  tiie  ashlaring. 

CORNICE. — This  forms  the  crown  to  the  ashlaring,  at  the  summit  of  a  building;  it 
is  frequently  the  part  which  is  marlced  particularly  by  the  architect,  to  designate  the 
particular  order  of  his  -work  :  hence  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Coiintluan  cornices  are  employed, 
vvlien,  perhaps,  no  column  of  either  is  used  in  the  work;  so  that  the  cornice  alone  desig- 
nates the  j)articular  style  of  the  building.  In  working  the  cornice,  the  top  or  upper  side 
should  be  splayed  away  towards  its  front  edge,  that  it  may  more  readily  carry  oflf  the 
water.  At  the  joint  of  each  of  the  stones  of  the  cornice  throughout  the  whole  length 
of  the  building,  that  part  of  each  stone  which  comes  nearest  at  the  joints,  should  be  left 
projecting  upwards  a  small  way;  a  process  by  workmen  called  saddling  the  joints;  this 
is  done  to  keep  the  rain  water  from  entering  them,  and  washing  out  the  cement.  These 
joints  should  be  chased  or  indented,  and  such  chases  filled  with  lead,  and  even  when 
dowels  of  iron  are  employed,  they  should  be  fixed  by  melted  lead  also. 

RUSTICATING,  in  architecture  and  masonry,  consists  in  forming  horizontal  sinkings, 
or  grooves,  in  the  stone  ashlaring  of  an  elevation,  intersected  by  vertical  or  cross  ones ; 
perhaps  invented  to  break  the  plainness  of  the  wall,  and  denote  more  obviously  the  bond 
of  the  stones.  It  is  often  formed  by  splaying  away  the  edge  of  the  stone  only  ;  in  this 
style,  the  groove  forms  the  elbow  of  a  geometrical  square.  Many  architects  omit  the 
vertical  grooves  in  rustics,  so  that  their  walls  present  an  uniform  series  of  horizontal 
sinkings.     There  are  many  examples,  both  ancient  and  modern,  of  each  kind. 

ARCHITRAVES  adorn  the  apertures  of  a  building,  projecting  somewhat  from  the 
face  of  the  ashlaring;  they  have  their  faces  sunk  with  mouldings,  and  also  their  outside 
edges.  When  they  traverse  the  curve  of  an  arch,  they  are  called  archivolts.  They  give 
beauty  to  the  exterior  of  a  building,  and  the  best  examples  are  among  the  Greek  and 
Roman  buildings. 

BLOCKING  COURSE. — This  is  a  course  of  stone,  traversing  the  top  of  the  cornice 
to  which  it  is  fixed  ;  it  is  commonly  in  its  height,  equal  to  the  projection  of  the  cornice. 
It  is  of  great  utility  in  giving  support  to  the  latter  by  its  weight,  and  to  which  it  adds 
grace.  At  the  same  time  it  admits  of  gutters  behind  it  to  convey  the  superfluous  water 
from  the  covering  of  the  building.  The  joints  should  always  cross  those  of  the  cornice, 
and  should  be  plugged  with  lead,  or  cramped  on  their  upper  edges  with  iron.  The 
Romans  often  dove-tailed  such  courses  of  stone. 

FASCIA  is  a  plain  course  of  stone,  generally  about  one  foot  in  height,  projecting  about 
an  inch  before  the  face  of  the  ashlaring,  or  in  a  line  with  the  plinth  of  the  building :  it 
is  fluted  or  throated  on  its  upper  edge,  to  prevent  the  water  from  running  over  the  ash- 
laring ;  its  upper  edge  is  sloped  downwards  for  the  same  purpose.  It  is  commonly  in- 
serted above  the  windows  of  the  ground-stories ;  viz.  between  them  and  those  of  the 
principal  story. 

A  PLINTH,  in  masonry,  is  the  fii'st  stone  inserted  above  the  ground :  it  is  in  one  or 
more  pieces,  according  to  its  situation,  projecting  beyond  the  walls  above  it  about  an 
inch,  with  its  projecting  edge  sloped  downwards,  or  moulded,  to  carry  off  the  water  that 
may  fall  on  it. 

IMPOSTS. — These  are  insertions  of  stone,  with  their  front  faces  generally  moulded : 
when  left  plain  they  are  prepared  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  facias.  They  form  the 
spring-stones  to  the  arches  in  the  apertures  of  a  building,  and  are  of  the  greatest  utility. 


24 


94  TERMS    USED    IN    MASONRY. 


AN  EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS,  AND  DESCRIPTION  OF  TOOLS,  USED 
IN  MASONRY:  including  the  composition  of  Cements,  or  Mortar,  &c. 

Abutment. — A  term  used  in  both  carpentry  and  masonry.  In  masonry,  the  abutments 
of  a  bridge  mean  the  walls  adjoining  to  the  land,  which  support  the  ends  of  the  extreme 
arches  or  roadway. 

Aperture. — An  opening  through  a  wall,  &c.  which  has,  generally,  three  straight  sides  ; 
of  these  two  are  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  and  the  other  parallel  to  it,  connecting  the 
lower  ends  of  the  vertical  stones  or  jambs.  The  lower  side  is  called  the  cill,  and  the 
upper  side  the  head.  The  last  is  either  an  arch  or  a  single  stone.  If  it  be  an  arch,  the 
aperture  is  called  an  arcade.  Apertures  may  be  circular  or  cylindrical ;  but  these  are  not 
very  frequent. 

Arch. — Part  of  a  building  su.spended  over  a  hollow,  and  concave  towards  the  area  of 
the  same. 

Archivolt  of  the  Arch  of  a  Bridge. — The  curved  line  formed  by  the  upper  sides  of  the 
arch-stones  in  the  face  of  tlie  work ;  by  the  archivolt  is  also  understood  the  Avhole  set  of 
arch-stones  that  appear  in  the  face  of  the  work. 

Ashlar. — A  term  applied  to  common  or  free-stones,  as  they  come  out  of  the  quarry. 
By  ashlar  is  also  meant  the  facing  of  squarred  stones  on  the  front  of  a  building.  If  the 
work  be  so  smoothed  as  to  take  out  the  maiks  of  the  tools  by  which  the  stones  Avere 
first  cut,  it  is  called  plain-ashlar  :  if  figured, it  may  be  tooled  asldar,  or  random-tooled,  or 
chiselled.,  or  boasted,  or  pointed.  If  the  stones  project  from  the  joints,  it  is  said  to  be 
rusticated. 

Banker. — The  stone  bench  on  which  work  is  cut  and  squared. 

Banquet. — The  raised  footway  adjoining  to  the  parapet  on  the  sides  of  a  bridge. 

Batter. — The  leaning  part  of  the  upper  part  of  the  face  of  a  wall,  which  so  inclines 
as  to  make  the  plumb-line  fall  within  (he  base. 

Beds  of  a  Stone. — The  parallel  surfaces  which  intersect  the  face  of  the  work  in  lines 
parallel  to  the  horizon. 

In  arching,  the  beds  are,  by  some,  called  sumincrings ;  by  others,  Avilh  more  propriety, 
radiations  or  radiated  joints. 

Bond. — That  regular  connection,  in  lapping  the  stones  upon  one  another,  when  carry- 
ing up  the  work,  which  forms  an  inseparable  mass  of  building. 

Caisson. — A  chest  of  strong  timber  in  which  the  piers  of  a  bridge  are  built,  by  sinking 
it,  as  the  work  advances,  till  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  bed  of  the  river,  and  then  the 
sides  are  disengaged,  being  constructed  for  that  purpo.se. 

Cement  and  Moi!tar  Composition  of. — It  is  almost  superfluous  to  say,  that  cement  or  . 
mortar,  is  a  preparation  of  lime  and  sand,  mixed  with  water,  which  serves  ta  unite  the 
stones,  in  the  building  of  Avails,  &c. 

On  the  proper  or  improper  manner  in  Avhich  the  cement  or  mortar  is  prepared  and 
used,  depends  tiie  durability  and  security  of  every  building  ;  we  shall,  therefore,  here 
introduce  many  particulars  on  this  head,  discovered  by  Dr.Higgins,  but  which,  not  being 
generally  known,  have  never  been  reduced  into  general  practice. 

For  the  preparation  of  every  kind  of  mortar  or  cement,  the  subsequent  remarks  should 
always  be  known.  Of  sand,  the  following  kinds  are  to  be  preferred  :  first,  drift-.'-and,  or 
quarry-sand,  which  consists  chiefly  of  hard  quartose  flat-faced  grains,  with  sharp  angles  ; 
secondly,  that  which  is  the  freest,  or  may  be  most  easily  freed  by  Avashing,  from  clay, 
salts,  and  calcareous,  gypseous,  or  other   grains  less  hard   and   durable    than  quartz ; 


TERMS    USED   IN    MASONRY. 


95 


thirdly,  that  which  contains  the  smallest  quantity  of  pyrites  or  heavy  metallic  matter, 
inseparable  by  washing;  and  fourlhly,  that  which'suffers  the  smallest  diminution  of  its 
bulk  in  washing.  Where  a  coarse  and  fine  sand  of  this  kind,  and  corresponding  in  the 
size  of  their  grains  with  the  coarse  and  fine  sands  hereafter  described,  cannot  be  easily 
procured,  let  such  sand  of  the  foregoing  quality  be  chosen  as  may  be  sorted  and  cleansed 
in  the  following  manner  ; 

Let  the  sand  be  sifted  in  streaming  clear  Avaler,  through  a  sieve  which  shall  give  pas- 
sage to  all  such  grains  as  do  not  exceed  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter  ;  and  let 
the  stream  of  water,  and  the  sifting,  be  regulated  so  that  all  the  sand  which  is  mucli 
finer  than  the  Lynn-sand,  commonly  used  in  the  London  glass-houses,  together  wilh 
clav,and  every  other  matter  specifically  lighter  than  sand,  maybe  washed  away  with  the 
stream;  whilst  the  purer  and  coarser  sand,  which  passes  through  the  sieve,  subsides  in 
a  convenient  receptacle,  and  the  coarse  rubbish  and  rubble  remain  on  the  sieve  to  be 
rejected. 

Let  the  sand,  which  thus  subsides  in  the  receptacle,  he  washed  in  clean  streaming 
water,  through  a  finer  sieve,  so  as  to  be  further  cleansed,  and  sorted  into  two  parcels ;  u 
coarser,  which  will  remain  in  the  sieve,  which  is  to  give  passage  to  such  grains  of  sand 
only  as  are  less  than  one-thirtieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  which  is  to  be  saved  apart 
under  the  name  of  coarse  sand;  and  a  finer,  which  will  pass  through  the  sieve  and  sub- 
side in  the  water,  and  which  is  to  be  saved  apart  under  the  name  of  fine  sand.  Let  the 
coarse  and  the  fine  sand  be  dried  separately,  either  in  the  sun,  or  on  a  clean  iron  plate, 
set  on  a  convenient  surface,  in  the  manner  of  a  sand-heat. 

Let  stone-lime  be  chosen,  which  heats  the  most  in  slaking,  and  slakes  the  quickest 
when  duly  watered  ;  that  which  is  the  freshest  made  and  closest  kept;  that  which  dis- 
solves in  distilled  vinegar  with  the  least  effervescence,  and  leaves  the  smallest  residue 
insoluble,  and  in  the  residue  the  smallest  quantity  of  clay,  gypsum,  or  martial  matter. 
Let  the  lime,  chosen  according  to  these  rules,  be  put  in  a  brass-wired  sieve  to  the  quan- 
tity of  fourteen  pounds.  Let  the  sieve  be  finer  than  either  of  the  foregoing ;  the  finer 
the  better  it  will  be :  let  the  lime  be  slaked,  by  plunging  it  into  a  butt  filled  with  soft 
water,  and  raising  it  out  quickly,  and  suffering  it  to  heat  and  fume  ;  and  by  repeating  this 
plunging  and  raising  alternately,  and  agitating  the  lime  until  it  be  made  to  pass  through 
the  sieve  into  the  water;  and  let  the  part  of  the  lime  which  does  not  etisily  pass  through 
the  sieve  be  rejected :  and  let  fresh  portions  of  the  Ume  be  thus  used,  until  as  many 
ounces  of  lime  have  passed  through  the  sieve  as  there  are  quarts  of  water  in  the  butt. 

Let  the  water,  thus  impregnated,  stand  in  the  butt  closely  covered  until  it  becomes 
clear,  and  through  wooden  cocks,  placed  at  different  heights  in  the  butt,  let  (he  clear 
liquor  be  drawn  off,  as  fast  and  as  low  as  the  lime  subsides,  for  use.  This  clear  liquor 
is  called  lime-water.  The  freer  the  water  is  from  saline  matter,  the  better  will  be  the 
cementing  liquor  made  with  it. 

Let  fifty-six  pounds  of  the  aforesaid  chosen  lime  be  sicked,  by  gradually  sprinkling 
the  lime-water  on  it,  and  especially  on  the  unslaked  pieces,  in  a  close  clean  place.  Let 
tlie  slaked  part  be  immediately  sifted  throughout  the  last-mentioned  fine  bra^s-wired 
sieve  ;  let  the  lime  whic'.i  passes  be  used  instantly,  or  kept  in  air-tight  vessels  ;  and  let  the 
part  of  the  lime  which  does  not  pass  through  the  sieve  be  rejected.  This  finer  and  richer 
part  of  the  lime,  which  passes  through  the  sieve,  may  be  called  purified  lime. 

Let  bone-ash  be  prepared  in  the  usual  manner,  by  grinding  the  whitest  biu'nt  bones; 
but  let  it  be  sifted,  so  as  to  be  much  finer  than  the  bone-ash  commonly  sold  for  making 
cupels. 

The  best  materials  for  making  the  cement  being  thus  prepared,  take  fifty-six  poimds 
of  the  coarse  sand,  and  forty-two  pounds  of  the  fine  sand  ;  mix  them  on  a  large  plank 
of  hard  wood  placed  horizontally ;  then  spread  the  sand   so  that  it  may  stand  to  the 


96  TERMS   USED   IN   MASONRY. 

height  of  six  inches,  with  a  flat  surface  on  the  plank,  wet  it  with  the  lime-water,  and  let 
any  superfluous  quantity  of  the  liquor,  which  tiie  sand  in  the  condition  described  cannot 
retain,  flow  away  ofl'  the  plank.  To  the  wettest  sand  add  fourteen  pounds  of  the  puri- 
fied lime,  in  several  successive  portions;  mixing  and  beating  them  up  together  in  the 
mean  time,  with  the  instruments  generally  used  in  making  line  mortar :  then  add  four- 
teen ])ounds  of  the  bone-ash,  in  successive  portions,  mixing  and  beating  all  together. 

The  quicker  and  the  more  perfectly  these  materials  are  mixed  and  beaten  together,  and 
the  sooner  the  cement  thus  formed  is  used,  the  better  it  will  be.  This  may  be  called 
coarse-grained  icaler  cement,  which  is  to  be  applied  in  building,  pointing,  plastering,  stuc- 
coing, or  other  work,  as  mortar  and  stucco  generally  are  ;  with  this  diiierence  chiefly; 
that  as  this  cement  is  shorter  than  mortar,  or  common  stucco,  and  dries  sooner,  it  ought 
to  be  worked  cxpedi(iou,sly  in  all  cases;  and,  in  stuccoing,  it  ought  to  be  laid  on  by  slid- 
ing the  trowel  upwards  on  it.  The  materials  used  along  with  this  cement  in  building, 
or  the  ground  on  which  it  is  to  be  laid  in  stuccoing,  ought  to  be  well  wetted  with  the 
lime-water  in  the  instant  of  lying  on  the  cement.  The  lime-water  is  also  to  be  used 
when  it  is  necessary  to  moisten  the  cement,  or  when  a  liquid  is  required  to  lacilitate  the 
floating  of  the  cement. 

When  such  cement  is  required  to  be  of  a  still  finer  texture,  take  ninety-eight  pounds 
of  the  fine  sand,  wet  it  with  the  lime-water,  and  mix  it  with  the  purified  lime  and  the 
bone-ash,  in  the  quantities  and  in  the  manner  above  described;  with  this  diflerence  only, 
that  fifteen  pounds  of  lime,  or  thereabouts,  are  to  be  used  instead  of  fourteen  pounds, 
if  the  greater  part  of  the  sand  be  as  fine  as  Lynn  sand.  This  may  be  called  finc-graincd 
icater-cement.  It  is  used  in  giving  the  last  coating,  or  the  finish,  to  any  work  intended 
to  imitate  the  finer-grained  stones  or  stucco.  But  it  may  be  applied  to  all  the  uses  of  the 
coarse-grained  irater-cement,  and  in  tlie  same  manner. 

When,  for  any  of  the  foregoing  purposes  of  pointing,  building,  &c.,  a  cement  is  required 
much  cheaper  and  coarser-grained  than  either  of  the  foregoing,  then  much  coarser  clean 
sand  than  the  foregoing  coarse  sand,  or  well-washed  fine  rubble,  is  to  be  provided. 
Of  this  coarse  sand,  or  rubble,  take  fifty-six  pounds, of  the  i'oregoing  coarse  sand  twenty- 
eight  potmds,  and  of  the  fine  sand  fourteen  pounds  ;  and  after  mixing  these,  and  wetting 
them  with  the  cementing-liquor  in  the  foregoing  manner,  add  fourteen  pounds,  or  some- 
what less,  of  the  purified  lime,  and  then  fourteen  pounds,  or  somewhat  less,  of  the  bone- 
ash,  mixing  them  together  in  the  manner  already  described.  When  the  cement  is  requir- 
ed to  be  white,  white  sand,  white  lime,  and  the  whitest  bone-ash,  are  to  be  chosen. — 
Grey  sand,  and  grey  bone-ash  formed  of  half-burnt  bones,  are  to  be  chosen  to  make 
cement  grey;  and  any  other  color  of  the  cement  is  obtained,  either  by  choosing  coloured 
sand,  or  by  the  admixture  of  the  necessary  quantity  of  colovucd  talc  in  powder,  or  of 
coloured,  vitreous,  or  metallic  powders,  or  other  durable  colouring  ingredients,  commonly 
used  in  paint. 

This  water-cement,  whether  the  coarse  or  fine-grained,  is  applicable  in  forming  artificial 
stone,  by  making  alternate  layers  of  the  cement  and  of  flint,  hard  stone,  or  bricks,  in 
moulds  of  the  figure  of  the  intended  stone,  and  by  exposing  the  masses  so  formed  to  the 
open  air,  to  harden. 

When  such  cement  is  required  for  water  fences,  two-thirds  of  the  prescribed  quantity 
of  bone-ashes  are  to  be  omitted  ;  and,  in  the  place  thereof,  an  equal  measure  of  powdei'- 
ed  terras  is  to  be  used  ;  and,  if  the  sand  employed  be  not  of  the  coarsest  sort,  more  terras 
must  be  added,  so  that  the  terras  shall  be  one-sixth  part  of  the  weight  of  the  sand. 

When  such  a  cement  is  required  of  the  finest  grain,  or  in  a  fluid  form,  so  that  it  may 
be  applied  with  a  brush,  flint  powder,  or  the  powder  of  any  quartose  or  hard  earthy  sub- 
stance, maybe  used  in  the  place  of  sand  ;  but  in  a  quantity  smaller,  in  proportion  as  the 
flint  or  other  powder  is  finer  ;  so  that  the  flint-powder  or  other  such  powder,  shall  not  be 


TERMS    USED    IN    MASONRY.  ,  97 

more  than  six  times  the  weight  of  the  lime,  nor  less  than  four  times  its  weight.  The 
greater  the  quantity  of  lime  within  these  limits,  the  more  will  the  cement  be  liable  to 
crack  by  quick  drying,  and,  licc  vasa. 

Where  the  above-described  sand  cannot  be  cotiveniently  procured,  or  where  the  sand 
cannot  be  conveiiieiuly  washed  and  sorted,  tliat  sand  which  most  resembles  the  mixture 
of  coarse  and  line  sand  above  described,  may  be  used  as  directed,  provided  due  attention 
be  paid  to  the  quantity  of  the  lime,  which  is  to  be  greater,  as  the  quality  is  finer,  and, 
vice  versa. 

Wliere  sand  cannot  be  easily  procured,  any  durable  stony  body,  or  baked  earth,  grossly 
powdered,  and  sorted  nearly  to  the  sizes  above  prescribed  for  sand,  may  be  used  in  the 
place  of  sand,  measure  for  measure,  but  not  weight  for  weight,  unless  such  gross  powder 
be  specifically  as  heavy  as  sand. 

Sand  may  be  cleansed  from  every  softer,  lighter,  and  less  durable  matter,  and  from  that 
part  of  (he  sand  which  is  too  fine,  by  various  methods  preferable  in  certain  circumstan- 
ces, to  that  which  has  been  already  described. 

Water  may  be  found  naturally  free  from  fixable  gas,  selenite,  or  clay  ;  such  water  may, 
without  any  great  inconvenience,  be  used  in  the  place  of  the  lime-water  ;  and  water  ap- 
proaching this  state  will  not  require  so  much  lime  as  above  prescribed  to  make  the  lime- 
water;  and  a  lime-water  sufficiently  useful  may  be  made  by  various  methods  of  mixing 
lime  and  water  in  the  described  proportions,  or  nearly  so. 

When  stone-lime  cannot  be  procured,  chalk-lime,  or  shell  lime,  which  best  resembles 
stone-lime,  in  the  foregoing  characters  of  lime,  may  be  used  in  the  manner  described, 
excepting  that  fourteen  pounds  and  a  half  of  chalk-lime  will  be  required  in  the  place  of 
fourteen  pounds  of  stone-lime.  The  proportion  of  lime,  as  prescribed  above,  may  be  in- 
creased without  inconvenience,  when  the  cement  of  stucco  is  to  be  applied  where  it  is 
not  liable  to  dry  quickly  ;  and,  in  the  contrary  case,  this  proportion  may  be  diminished. 
The  defect  of  lime,  in  quantity  or  quality,  may  be  very  advantageously  supplied,  by 
causing  a  considerable  quantity  of  lime-water  to  soak  into  the  work,  in  successive  por- 
tions, and  at  distant  intervals  of  time  ;  so  that  the  calcareous  matter  of  the  lime-water, 
and  the  matter  attracted  from  the  open  air,  may  fill  and  strengthen  the  work. 

The  powder  of  almost  every  well-dried  or  burnt  animal  substance  may  be  used  instead 
of  bone-ash  ;  and  several  earthy  powders,  especially  the  micaceous  and  the  metallic  ;  and 
theelixated  ashes  of  diverse  vegetables,  whose  earth  will  not  burn  to  lime,  will  answer 
the  ends  of  bone-ash  in  some  degree. 

The  quantity  of  bone-ash  described  may  be  lessened  without  injuring  the  cement ;  in 
those  circumstances  e.specially  which  admit  the  quantity  of  lime  to  be  lessened,  and  in 
those  wherein  the  cement  is  not  liable  to  dry  quickly.  The  art  of  remedying  the  defects 
of  lime  may  be  advantageously  practised  to  supply  the  deficiency  of  bone-ash,  especially 
in  building,  and  in  making  artificial  stone  with  this  cement. 

As  the  preceding  method  of  making  mortar  difiers,  in  many  particulars,  from  the  com- 
mon process,  it  may  be  useful  to  inquire  into  the  causes  on  which  this  difference  is 
founded. 

When  the  sand  contains  much  clay,  the  workmen  find  that  the  best  mortar  they  can 
make  must  contain  about  one-half  lime;  and  hence  they  lay  it  down  as  certain,  that  the 
best  mortar  is  made  by  the  composition  of  half  sand  and  half  lime. 

But  with  sand  requiring  so  great  a  proportion  of  lime  as  this,  it  will  be  impossible  to 
make  good  cement ;  for  it  is  universally  allowed  that  the  hardness  of  mortar  depends  on 
the  crystallization  of  the  lime  round  the  other  materials  which  are  mixed  witli  it;  and 
thus  uniting  the  whole  mass  into  one  solid  substance.  But,  if  a  portion  of  the  materials 
used  be  clay  or  any  other  friable  substance,  it  must  be  evident  that,  as   these  friable 

25 


j98  TERMS    USED    IN    MASONRY. 

substances  are  not  changed  in  one  single  particular,  by  the  process  of  being  inlxeit  up 
with  lime  and  water,  the  mortar,  of  which  they  form  a  proportion,  will  consequently  be, 
more  or  less,  of  a  friable  nature,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  friable  substances  used 
in  the  composition  of  the  mortar.  On  the  other  hand,  if  mortar  be  composed  of  lime 
and  good  sand  only,  as  the  sand  is  a  stony  substance,  and  not  in  the  least  friable,  and  as 
the  lime,  by  perfect  crystallization,  becomes  likewise  of  a  stony  nature,  it  must  follow^ 
that  a  mass  of  mortar,  composed  of  these  two  .stony  substances,  willl  itself  be  a  hard, 
solid,  unfriable  substance.  This  may  account  for  one  of  the  essential  variations  in  the 
preceding  method  from  that  in  common  use,  and  point  out  the  necessity  of  never  using, 
in  the  place  of  sand,  which  is  a  durable  stony  body,  the  scrapings  of  roads,  old  mortar, 
and  other  rubbish,  from  ancient  buildings,  which  are  frequently  made  use  of,  as  all 
of  them  consist,  more  or  less,  of  muddy,  soft,  and  minutely  divided  particles. 

Another  es.sential  point  is  the  nature  and  quality  of  the  lime.  Now,  experience  prove* 
that,  when  lime  has  been  long  kept  in  heaps,  or  untight  casks,  it  is  reduced  to  the  state 
of  chalk,  and  becomes  every  day  less  capable  of  being  made  into  good  raortar ;  because, 
as  the  goodness  or  durability  of  the  mortar  depends  on  the  crystallization  of  the  lime, 
and,  as  experiments  have  proved,  that  lime,  when  reduced  to  this  chalk-like  state,  is 
always  incapable  of  perfect  crystallization,  it  must  follow  that,  as  lime  in  this  state  never 
becomes  crystallized,  the  mortar  of  which  it  forms  the  most  indispensable  part,  will  ne- 
cessarily be  very  imperfect ;  that  is  to  say,  it  will  never  become  a  solid  stony  substance; 
a  circumstance  absolutely  required  in  the  formation  of  good  durable  mortar.  These  are 
the  two  principal  ingredients  in  the  formation  of  mortar ;  but,  as  water  is  also  necessary, 
it  may  be  useful  to  point  out  that  which  is  the  fittest  for  the  purpose ;  the  best  is  rain 
water,  river  water  the  second,  land  water  next,  and  spring  water  last. 

The  ruins  of  the  ancient  Roman  buildings  are  found  to  cohere  so  strongly,  as  to  have 
caused  an  opinion  that  their  constructors  were  acquainted  with  some  kijid  of  a  mortar 
which,  in  comparison  with  ours,  might  justly  be  called  cement;  and  that,  to  our  want  of 
knowledge  of  ihe  materials  they  used,  is  owing  the  great  inferiority  of  modern  buildings 
in  their  clurability.  But  a  proper  attention  to  the  above  particulars  would  soon  show  that 
the  durability  of  the  ancient  edifices  depended  on  the  manner  of  preparing  their  mortar 
more  than  on  the  nature  of  the  material  used.  The  following  observations  w  ill,  we  think, 
prove  this  beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt : 

Lime,  which  has  been  slaked  and  mixed  with  sand,  becomes  hard  and  consistent  when 
dry,  by  a  process  similar  to  that  which  produces  natural  slalactkcs  in  caverns.  These 
are  always  formed  by  water  dropping  from  the  roof.  By  some  unknown  and  inexplica- 
ble process  of  nature,  this  water  has  had  dissolved  in  it  a  small  portion  of  calcareous 
matter  in  a  caustic  state.  So  long  as  the  water  continues  covered  from  the  air,  it  keeps 
the  earth  dissolved  in  it;  it  being  the  natural  property  of  calcareous  earths,  when  de- 
prived of  their  fixed  air,  to  dissolve  in  water.  But,  when  the  small  drop  of  water 
comes  to  be  exposed  to  the  air,  the  calcareous  matter  contained  in  it  begins  to  attract  the 
fixable  part  of  the  atmosphere.  In  proportion  as  it  does  so^  it  also  begins  to  separate 
from  the  water,  and  to  re-assume  its  native  form  of  lime-stone  or  marble.  When  the 
calcareous  matter  is  perAictly  crystallized  in  this  manner, it  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
lime-stone  or  marble  of  the  same  consistence  as  before.  If  lime,  in  a  caustic  state,  is 
mixed  in  water,  part  of  the  lime  WiW  be  dissolved,  and  will  also  begin  to  crystallize. 
The  water  which  parted  with  the  crystallized  lime  will  then  begin  to  act  upon  the  re- 
niainder,  which  it  could  not  dissolve  before;  and  thus  the  process  will  continue,  either 
till  the  lime  be  all  reduced  to  an  c//lfc,  or  crystalline  slate,  or  something  hinders  the 
action  of  the  water  upon  it.  It  is  this  crystallization  which  is  observed  by  the  workmen 
when  a  heap  of  lime  is  mixed  with  water,  and  left  for  some  time  to  n)acerate.  A  hard 
crust  is  formed  on  the  surface,  which   is   ignorantly  called  frostUng,   though  it  takes 


TERMS  USED  IN  MASONRY.  99 

place  in  summer  as  well  as  in  winter.  If,  therefore,  the  hardness  of  the  lime,  or  its 
becoming  a  cement,  depends  entirely  on  the  formation  of  its  crystals,  it  is  evident  that 
the  perfection  of  the  cement  nmst  depend  on  the  perfection  of  the  crystals,  and  the  hard- 
ness of  the  matters  which  are  eri(aMs;ied  amoiii^  them.  The  additional  substances  used 
in  making- of  mortar,  such  as  sand,  brick-dust,  or  the  like,  serve  only  for  a  purpose  similar 
to  what  is  answered  by  slicks  put  into  a  vessel  full  of  any  saline  solution  ;  namely,  to 
afibrd  the  crystals  an  opportunity  of  fastening  themselves  upon  it.  If.  therefore,  the 
matter  interposed  between  the  crystals  of  the  lime  is  of  a  friable  brittle  nature,  such  as 
brick-dust  or  chalk,  tiie  mortar  will  be  of  a  weak  and  imperfect  kind ;  but,  when  the 
particles  are  hard,  angular,  and  very  difficult  to  be  broken,  such  as  those  of  river  or  pit- 
sand,  the  mortar  turns  out  exceedingly  good  and  strong.  That  the  crystallization  may 
be  tlie  more  perfect,  a  large  quantity  of  water  should  be  used,  the  ingredients  be  perfect- 
ly mixed  together,  and  the  drying  be  as  slow  as  possible.  An  attention  to  these  particu- 
lars would  make  the  buildings  of  the  moderns  equally  durable  with  those  of  the  ancients. 
In  the  old  Roman  works,  the  great  thickness  of  the  walls  neeessarily  required  a  vast 
length  of  time  to  dry.  The  middle  of  them  was  composed  of  pebbles  thrown  in  at  ran- 
dom, and  which,  evidently,  had  thin  mortar  poured  in  among  them.  Thus  a  great 
quantity  of  the  lime  would  be  dissolved,  and  the  crystallization  performed  in  the  most 
perfect  manner.  The  indefatigable  pains  and  perseverence,  for  which  the  Romans  were 
so  remarkable  in  all  their  undertakings,  leave  no  room  to  doubt  that  they  would  take 
care  to  have  the  ingredients  mixed  together  as  well  as  possible.  The  consec[uence  of 
all  this  is,  that  the  buildings  formed  in  this  manner  are  all  as  firm  as  if  cut  out  of  a  solid 
rock;  the  mortar  being  equally  hard,  if  not  more  so,  than  the  stones  themselves. 

Centres. — the  frame  of  timber-work  for  supporting  arches  during  their  erection. 

Coffer-Dam,  or  Battardeiau. — A  case  of  piling,  without  a  bottom,  constructed  for  en- 
closing and  building  the  piers  of  a  bridge.  A  cofter-dam  may  be  either  single  or  double, 
the  space  between  being  filled  with  clay  or  chalk,  closely  rammed. 

Drag. — A  thin  plate  of  steel  indented  on  the  edge,  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw,  and  used 
in  working  soft  stone,  which  has  no  grit  for  finishing  the  surface. 

Drift. — The  horizontal  force  of  an  arch,  by  which  it  tends  to  overset  the  piers. 

ExTRADos  OP  AN  Arch. — The  exterior  or  convex  curve,  or  the  top  of  the  arch-stones. 
This  teiun  is  opposed  to  the  Intrados,  or  concave  side. 

ExTRADos  OF  A  Bridge. — The  curve  of  the  road-way. 

Fence- Wall. — A  wall  used  to  prevent  the  encrochment  of  men  or  animals. 

Footings. — Projecting  courses  of  stone,  without  the  naked  superincumbent  part,  and 
which  are  laid  in  order  to  rest  the  wall  firmly  on  its  base. 

Headers.— Stones  disposed  with  their  length  horizontally,  in  the  thickness  of  the 
wall. 

I.mpost  on  Springing. — The  upper  part  or  parts  of  a  wall  employed  for  springing  an 
arch. 

Jettee. — The  border  made  around  the  stilts  under  a  pier. 

Joggled  Joints. — The  method  of  indenting  the  stones,  so  as  to  prevent  the  one  from 
being  pushed  away  from  the  other  by  lateral  force. 

Kev-Stones. — A  term  frequently  used  for  bond-stones. 

Key-Stone. — The  middle  voussoir  of  an  arch  over  the  centre. 

Kev-Stone  of  an  Arch. — The  stone  at  the  summit  of  the  arch,  put  in  last  for  wedg- 
ing and  closing  the  arch. 

Level, — Horizontal,  or  parallel  to  the  horizon. 

Naked  op  a  Wall. — The  vertical  or  battering  surface,  whence  all  projcctures  arise. 

Off-Set. — The  upper  surface  of  a  lower  part  of  a  wall,  left  by  reducing  the  thickness 
of  the  superincumbent  part  upon  one  side  or  the  other,  or  both. 


100  TERMS   U^ED   IN   MASONRY. 

Parapets. — The  breast-walls  erected  on  the  sides  of  the  extrados  of  the  bridge,  for 
preventing  passengers  from  falling  over. 

Paving. — A  floor,  or  surface  of  stone,  for  walking  upon. 

Piers  in  Houses. — The  walls  between  apertures,  or  between  an  aperture  and  the 
corner. 

Piers  of  a  Bridge. — The  insulated  parts  between  the  apertures  or  arches,  for  suppor- 
ting the  arches  and  road-way. 

Piles. — Timbers  driven  into  the  bed  of  a  river,  or  the  foundation  of  a  building  for 
supporting  a  structure. 

Pitch  of  an  Arch. — The  height  from  the  springing  to  the  summit  of  the  arch. 

Q^UARRY. — The  place  whence  stones  are  raised. 

Random  Courses,  in  Paving. — Unequal  courses,  without  any  regard  to  equi-distant 
joints. 

Span. — The  span  of  an  arch  is  its  greatest  horizontal  width. 

Sterlings. — A  case  made  about  a  pier  of  stilts  in  order  to  secure  it.  See  the  follow- 
ing arlicle. 

Stilts. — A  set  of  piles  driven  into  the  bed  of  a  rivei',  at  small  distances,  with  a  sur- 
rounding case  of  piling  driven  closely  together,  and  the  interstices  filled  with  stones,  in 
order  to  form  a  foundation  for  building  the  pier  upon. 

Stretchers. — Those  stones,  wliich  have  their  length  disposed  horizontally  in  the 
length  of  tiie  wall. 

Through-Stones. — A  term  employed  in  some  countries  for  bond-stones. 

Tools  used  by  Masons. — The  masons'  Level,  Plumb-Rule,  Square,  Bevel,  Troicel,  Hod, 
and  Compasses,  are  similar  in  every  respect  to  those  tools  which  bear  the  same  name 
among  bricklayers;  and  which  are  described  hereafter.  These  tools,  which  differ  from 
such  as  are  used  by  the  bricklayer,  are  as  follow: — 

The  Saw  used  by  the  masons  is  without  teeth,  and  stretched  in  a  frame  nearly  resemb- 
ling the  joiner's  saw-frame.  It  is  made  from  four  to  six  feet  or  more,  in  length,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  slabs,  which  are  intended  to  be  cut  by  it.  To  facilitate  the  process 
of  cutting  slabs  into  slips  and  scantlings,  a  portion  of  sharp  silicious  sand  is  placed  upon 
an  inclined  plane,  with  a  small  barrel  of  water  at  the  top,  furnished  with  a  spiggot,  which 
is  left  sufficiently  loose  to  allow  the  water  to  exude  drop  by  drop  ;  and  thus,  by  running 
over  the  sand,  carries  with  it  a  portion  of  sand  into  the  kerf  of  the  stone.  The  workmen 
sits  at  one  side  of  the  stone,  and  draws  the  saw  to  and  fro,  horizontally,  taking  a  range 
of  about  twelve  inches  each  time  before  he  returns.  By  this  means,  calcareous  stones 
of  the  hardest  kinds  may  be  cut  into  slabs  of  any  thickness  with  scarcely  any  loss  of 
substance.  But,  as  this  method  of  sawing  stone  is  slow  and  expensive,  mills  have  been 
erected  in  various  parts  of  Great  Britain,  by  which  the  same  process  is  performed  at  a 
much  cheaper  rate,  and  in  some  of  these  mills  every  species  of  moulding  on  stone  is  pro- 
duced. 

Masons  make  use  of  many  chisels,  of  different  sizes,  but  all  resembling,  or  nearly  re- 
sembling, each  other  in  form.  They  are  usually  made  of  iron  and  steel  welded  togeth- 
er: but,  when  made  entirely  of  steel,  which  is  more  elastic  than  iron,  they  will  natural- 
ly produce  a  greater  effect  with  any  given  impulse.  The  form  of  masons'  chisels  is  that 
of  a  wedge,  the  cutting  edge  being  the  verticle  angle.  '1  hey  are  made  about  eight  or 
nine  inches  long.  When  the  cutting-edge  is  broader  than  the  portion  held  in  the  hand, 
the'lowcr  part  is  expanded  in  the  form  of  a  dove-tail.  When  the  cutting-edge  i.s  smaller 
than  the  handle,  the  lower  end  is  sloped  down  in  the  form  of  a  pyramid.  In  finishing 
off  stone,  smooth  and  neat,  great  care  should  be  taken  that  the  arris  is  not  splintered, 
which  would  certainly  occur,  if  the  edge  of  the  chisel  were  directed  outwards  in  making 
tlie    blow;    but    if  it    be    directed    inwards,   so    as   to  overhang  a  little,   and  form 


PLASTERING.  101 

an  angle  of  about  forty-five  degrees,  there  is  little  danger  of  splintering  the  arris  in 
chipping. 

Of  the  two  kinds  of  chisels,  which  are  the  most  frequently  made  use  of,  the  toolis  the 
largest;  that  is. to  say,  in  the  breadth  of  its  cutting  edge;  it  is  used  for  working  the 
surface  of  stone  into  narrow  furroAvs,  or  channels,  at  regular  distances ;  this  operation  is 
called  tooling,  and  the  surface  is  said  to  be  tooled. 

The  Point  is  the  smallest  kind  of  chisel  used  by  masons,  being  never  more  than  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  broad  on  its  cutting-edge.  It  is  used  for  reducing  the  irregularity  of 
the  surface  of  any  rough  stone. 

The  St  might- Edge  is  similar  to  the  instrument  among  carpenters,  of  the  same  name ; 
it  being  a,  thin,  broad,  planed  true,  to  point  out  cross-windings  and  other  inequalities  of 
surface,  and  thus  direct  the  workmen  in  the  use  of  the  chisel. 

The  Mallet  used  by  the  mason  diffei-s  from  that  of  any  other  artizan.  It  is  similar  to 
a  bell  in  contour,  excepting  a  portion  of  tlie  broadest  part,  which  is  rather  cylindrical. 
The  handle  is  rather  short,  being  only  just  long  enough  to  be  firmly  grasped  in  the  hand. 
It  is  employed  for  giving  percussive  force  to  chisels,  by  striking  them  with  any  part  of 
the  cylindrical  surface  of  the  mallet. 

The  Hammer  used  by  masons  is  generally  furnished  with  a  point  or  an  edge  like  a 
chisel.  Both  kinds  are  used  for  dividing  stones,  and  likewise  for  producing  those  narrow 
marks  or  furrows  left  upon  hewn  stone  work  which  is  not  ground  on  the  face. 

Under  Bed  op  a  Stone. — The  lower  surface,  generally  placed  horizontally. 

Upper  Bed  op  a  Stone. — The  upper  surface,  generally  placed  horizontally. 

Vault. — A  mass  of  stones  so  combined  as  to  support  each  other  over  a  hollow. 

VoDssoiRS. — The  arch-stones  in  the  face  or  faces  of  an  arch  ;  the  middle  one  is  called 
the  key-stone. 

Wall. — -An  erection  of  stone,  generally  perpendicular  to  the  horizon ;  but  sometimes 
battering,  in  order  to  give  stability. 

Walls,  Emplection. — Those  which  are  built  in  regular  courses,  with  the  stones 
smoothed  in  the  face  of  the  work.  They  are  of  two  kinds,  Roman  and  Grecian,  as 
already  noticed.  The  difference  is,  that  the  core  of  the  Roman  emplection  is  rubble ; 
whereas,  in  the  Grecian  emplection,  it  is  built  in  the  same  manner  as  the  face,  and  every 
alternate  stone  goes  through  the  entire  thickness  of  the  wall. 

Walls,  Isodomum. — Those  wherein  the  courses  are  of  equal  thickness,  compact,  and 
regularly  built :  but  the  stones  are  not  smoothed  on  the  face. 

Walls,  Pseodo-Isodomum -Those  which  have  unequal  courses. 

PLASTERING. 

(From  Nicholson's  New  Practical  Builder. 

In  modern  practice.  Plastering,  by  its  recent  improvements,  occurs  in  every  depart- 
ment of  architecture,  both  internally  and  externally.  It  is  more  particularly  applied  to 
the  sides  of  the  walls  and  the  ceilings  of  the  interior  parts  of  buildings,  and,  also,  for 
stuccoing  the  external  parts  of  many  edifices. 

In  treating  on  this  subject,  we  shall  divide  Plastering  under  its  several  heads  :  as 
plastering  on  laths,  in  its  several  ways ;  r-endering  on  brick  and  stone ;  and,  finally,  the 
finishing  to  all  the  several  kinds  of  work  of  this  description;  as  well  as  modelling,  and 
casting  the  several  mouldings,  both  ornamental  and  plain ;  stuccoing,  and  other  outside 
compositions,  which  are  applied  upon  the  exterior  of  buildings  ;  and,  the  •  making  and 
polishing  the  scagUola,  now  so  much  used  for  columns,  and  their  antse,  or  pilasters,  &c. 

26 


102  PLASTERING. 

Lime  forms  an  essential  ingredient  in  all  the  operations  of  this  trade.  This  useful 
article  is  vended  at  the  wharves  about  London  in  bags,  and  varies  in  its  price  from 
thirteen  shillings  to  fifteen  shillings  per  hundred  pecks.  Most  of  the  lime  made  use  of  in 
London  is  prepared  from  chalk,  and  the  greater  portion  comes  from  Purlleet  in  Kent ; 
but,  for  stuccoing,  and  other  work,  in  which  strength  and  durability  is  required,  the  lime 
made  at  Dorking,  in  Surry,  is  preferred. 

The  composition,  known  as  Plaster  of  Paris,  is  one  on  which  the  Plastefer  very 
much  depends  for  giving  the  precise  form  and  finish  to  all  the  better  parts  of  his  \\  ork ; 
with  it  he  makes  all  his  ornaments  and  cornices,  besides  mixing  it  in  his  lime  lo  fill  up 
the  finishing  coat  to  the  walls  and  ceilings  of  rooms. 

The  stone  from  which  the  plaster  is  obtained,  is  known  to  professional  men  by  several 
names,  as  sulphate  of  lime,  selenite,  gi/psum,  &c.;  but  its  common  name  seems  to  have 
been  derivetl  from  the  immense  quantities  which  have  been  taken  from  the  hill  named 
Mont-AIartrc,  in  tlie  environs  of  Paris.  The  stone  from  this  place  is,  in  its  appearance, 
similar  to  common  free-stone,  excepting  its  being  replete  with  small  specular  crystals. 
The  French  break  it  into  fragments  of  about  the  size  of  an  egg,  and  then  burn  it  in  kilns, 
with  billets  of  wood,  till  the  crystals  lose  their  brilliancy ;  it  is  then  ground  with  stones, 
to  different  degrees  of  fineness,  according  to  its  intended  uses.  This  kind  of  specular 
gypsum  is  said  to  be  employed  in  Russia,  where  it  abounds,  as  a  substitute  for  glass  in 
windows. 

According  to  the  chemists,  the  specific  gravity  of  gypsum,  or  Plaster  of  Paris,  is  from 
1.872  to  2.311,  requiring  500  parts  of  cold  and  450  of  heat  to  dissolve^it ;  when  calcined, 
it  decrepitates,  becomes  very  friable  and  white,  and  heals  a  little  with  water.  In  the 
process  of  burning,  or  calcination,  it  loses  its  water  of  crystalization,  which,  according 
to  Fourcroy,  is  22  per  cent. 

The  Plaster  commonly  made  use  of  in  London  is  prepared  from  a  sulphate  of  lime, 
produced  in  Derbyshire,  and  called  alabaster.  Eight  hundred  tons  are  said  to  be  annu- 
ally raised  there.  It  is  brought  to  London  in  a  crude  state,  and  afterwards  calcined,  and 
ground  in  a  mill  for  use,  and  vended  in  brown  paper  bags,  each  containing  about  half  a 
peck;  the  coarser  sort  is  about  fourteen-pence  per  bag,  and  the  finest  from  eighteen  to 
twenty-pence.  The  figure-makers  use  it  for  their  casts  of  anatomical  and  other  figures; 
and  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  not  only  to  the  plasterer,  but  to  the  sculptor, 
ma.son,  &c. 

The  working  tools  of  the  plasterer  consist  of  a  spade,  of  the  common  sort,  with  a  tiro 
or  three  pronged  rake,  which  he  uses  for  the  purpose  of  mixing  his  mortar  and  hair 
together.  His  trowels  are  of  two  sorts,  one  kind  being  of  three  or  four  sizes.  The  first 
sort  is  called  the  laying  and  smoothing  tool;  its  figure  consists  in  a  flat  piece  of  hardened 
iron,  very  thin,  of  about  ten  inches  in  length,  and  two  inches  and  a  half  in  width,  ground 
to  a  semi-circular  shape  at  one  end,  while  the  other  is  left  square;  on  the  back  of  the 
plate,  and  nearest  to  the  square  end,  is  rivetted  a  piece  of  small  rod-iron,  with  two  legs, 
one  of  which  is  fixed  to  the  plate,  and  the  other,  adapted  for  being  fastened  in  a  round 
wooden  handle.  With  this  tool  all  the  first  coats  of  plastering  are  put  on  ;  and  it  is  also 
used  in  setting  the  finishing  coat. 

The  trowels  of  the  plasterer  are  made  more  neatly  than  the  tools  of  the  same  name 
used  by  other  artificers.  The  largest  size  is  about  seven  inches  long  on  the  plate  and  is, 
of  polished  steel,  two  inches  and  three-quarters  at  the  heel,  diverging  to  an  apex  or  point. 
To  the  wide  end  is  adapted  a  handle,  commonly  of  mahogany,  with  a  deep  brass  ferrule. 
With  this  trowel  the  plasterer  works  all  his  fine  stuff,  and  forms  cornices,  mouldings,  &c. 
The  other  trowels  are  made  and  fitted-up  in  a  similar  manner,  varying  gradually  in  their 
sizes  from  two  or  three  inches  in  length. 

The  plasterer  likewise  employs  several  small  tools,  called  slopping  and  picking-out 


PLASTERING.  103 

tools  ;  these  are  made  of  steel,  well  polished,  and  are  of  different  sizes,  commonly  about 
seven  or  eight  inches  long,  and  half  an  inch  wide,  flattened  at  both  ends,  and  ground 
away  till  they  are  somewhat  rounding.  With  these  he  models  and  finishes  all  the  mitres 
and  returns  to  the  cornices,  and  fdls  up  and  perfects  the  ornaments  at  their  joinings. 

The  workman  in  this  art  should  keep  all  his  tools  very  clean ;  they  should  be  daily 
polished,  and  never  put  away  without  being  wiped  and  freed  from  plaster. 

In  the  practice  of  plastering  many  rules  and  models  of  wood  are  required.  The  rules 
or  straight-edges,  as  they  are  called,  enable  the  plasterer  to  get  his  work  to  an  upright 
line;  and  tlie  models  guide  him  in  running  plain  mouldings,  cornices,  &c. 

The  Cements  made  use  of,  for  the  interior  work,  are  of  two  or  three  sorts.  The  first 
is  called  lime  and  hair,  or  coarse  stuff;  this  is  prepared  in  a  similar  way  to  common 
mortar,  with  the  addition  of  hair,  from  the  tan-yards,  mixed  in  it.  The  mortar  used  for 
lime  and  hair  is  previously  mixed  with  the  sand,  and  the  hair  added  afterward.  The 
latter  is  incorporated  by  the  labourers  with  a  three-pronged  rake. 

Fine  stuff  is  pure  lime,  slaked  with  a  small  portion  of  water,  and  afterwards  well 
saturated,  and  put  into  tubs  in  a  semi-fluid  stale,  where  it  is  allowed  to  settle,  and  the 
water  to  evaporate.     A  small  portion  of  hair  is  sometimes  added  to  the  fine  stuff. 

Stucco,  for  inside  walls,  called  trmcelkd  or  bastard  stucco,  is  composed  of  the  fine  stuff 
above  described,  and  very  fine  washed  sand,  in  the  proportion  of  one  of  the  latter  to  three 
of  the  former.     All  walls  intended  to  be  painted,  are  finished  with  this  stucco. 

Mortar,  called  giiage  stuff,  consists  of  about  three-fifths  of  fine  stuff  and  one  of  Plaster 
of  Paris,  mixed  together  with  water,  in  small  quantiiies  at  a  lime :  this  renders  it  more 
susceptible  of  fixing  or  setting.  This  cement  is  used  for  forming  all  the  cornices  and 
mouldings,  which  are  made  with  wooden  moulds.  When  great  expedition  is  required, 
the  Plasterers  guase  all  their  mortar  with  Plaster  of  Paris.  This  enables  them  to  hasten 
the  work,  as  the  mortar  will  then  set  as  soon  as  laid  on. 

Plasterers  have  technical  words  and  phrases,  by  which  they  designate  the  quality 
of  their  work,  and  estimate  its  value. 

By  JiATHiNG  is  meant  the  nailing  up  of  laths,  or  slips  of  wood,  on  the  ceiling  and  parti- 
tions. The  laths  are  made  of  fir  or  oak,  and  called  three-foots  and  four-foots,  being  of 
these  several  lengths;  they  are  purchased  by  the  bundle  or  load. 

There  are  three  sorts  of  laths;  viz.  single  laths,  lath  and  half,  and  double  laths.  Single 
laths  are  tlie  cheapest  and  thinest ;  lath  and  half  denotes  one-third  thicker  than  the  single 
lath  ;  and  double  laths  twice  their  thickness.  The  laths  generally  used  in  London  are 
made  of  fir,  imported  from  Norway,  the  Baltic,  and  America,  in  pieces  called  staves. 
Most  of  the  London  timber-merchants  are  dealers  in  laths  :.and  there  are  luany  persons 
who  confine  themselves  exclusively  to  this  branch  of  trade. 

The  fir-laths  are  generally  fastened  by  cast-iron  nails,  whereas,  the  oaken  ones  require 
wrought-iron  nails,  as  no  nail  of  the  former  kind  would  be  found  equal  to  the  perforation 
of  the  oak,  which  would  shiver  it  in  pieces  by  the  act  of  driving. 

In  lathing  ceilings,  it  is  advisable  that  the  plasterer  should  make  use  of  laths  of  both 
the  usual  lengths,  and  so  manage  the  nailing  of  them,  tliat  the  joints  should  be  as  much 
broken  as  possible.  This  will  tend  to  strengthen  the  plastering  laid  thereon,  by  giving  it 
a  stronger  key  or  tie.  The  strongest  laths  are  adapted  for  ceilings,  and  the  slightest  or 
single  laths  for  the  partitions  of  buildings. 

Laying  consists  in  spreading  a  single  coat  of  lime  and  hair  all  over  a  ceiling  or  parti- 
tion; taking  care  that  it  is  very  even  in  every  part,  and  quite  smooth  throughout:  this 
is  the  cheapest  manner  of  plastering. 

Pricking-up  is  similar  to  laying,  but  is  used  as  a  preliminary  to  a  more  perfect  kind 
of  work.  After  the  plastering  has  been  put  up  in  this  manner,  it  is  scratched  all  over  with 
the  end  of  a  lath,  in  order  to  give  a  key  or  tie  to  i\\e finishing  coats,  which  are  to  follow. 


104  PLASTERING. 

Lathing,  Laying,  and  Set,  are  applied  to  work  that  is  to  be  lathed  as  already  de- 
scribed, and  covered  with  one  coat  of  lime  and  hair ;  and,  when  sufficiently  dry,  finished 
by  being  covered  over  with  a  thin  and  smooth  coat  of  lime  only,  called  by  the  plasterer 
inittij  or  set.  This  coat  is  spread  with  the  smoothing  trowel,  and  the  surface  finished 
with  a  large  flat  hog's  hair  brush.  The  trowel  is  held  in  the  right  hand,  and  the  brush 
in  the  left.  As  the  plasterer  lays  on  tlie  set,  he  draws  the  brush  backwards  and  forwards 
over  it,  till  the  surface  is  smooth. 

Lathing,  Floating,  and  Set,  consists  of  lathing  and  covering  with  a  coat  of  plaster, 
which  is  pricked  up  for  the  floated  work,  and  is  thus  performed  :  The  plasterer  provides 
himself,  with  a  strong  rule,  or  straight-edge,  often  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  in  length;  two 
workmen  are  necessarily  employed  therein.  It  is  began  by  plumbing  with  a  plumb-rule, 
and  trying  if  the  parts  to  be  floated  are  upright  and  straight,  to  ascertain  where  filling  up 
is  wanting.  This  they  perform  by  putting  on  a  trowel  or  two  of  lime  and  hair  only ; 
when  they  have  ascertained  these  preliminaries,  the  screeds  are  prepared. 

A  Screed,  in  plastering,  is  a  stile  foi'med  of  lime  and  hair,  about  seven  or  eight  inches 
wide,  guaged  exactly  true.  In  floated  work  these  screed  are  made  at  every  three  or  four 
feet  distance,  vertically  round  a  room,  and  are  prepared  perfectly  straight  by  applying 
the  straight-edge  to  them  to  make  them  so ;  and,  when  all  the  screeds  are  formed,  the 
parts  between  them  are  filled  up  flush  with  lime  and  hair,  or  stuff,  and  made  even  with 
the  face  of  the  screeds.  The  straight-edge  is  then  worked  horizontally  upon  the  screeds, 
to  take  ofl"  all  superfluous  stuff.  The  floating  is  thus  finished  by  adding  stuff'  continually, 
aad^applying  the  rule  upon  the  screens  till  it  becomes,  in  every  part  quite  even  with 
them. 

Ceilings  are  floated  in  the  same  manner,  by  having  screeds  formed  across  them,  and 
filling  up  the  intermediate  spaces  with  stuff,  and  applying  the  rule  as  for  the  wall. 

Plastering  is  good  or  bad,  in  proportion  to  the  care  taken  in  this  part  of  the  work  ; 
hence  the  most  careful  workmen  are  generally  employed  therein. 

The  Set  to  the  floated  work  is  performed  in  a  similar  Avay  to  that  already  described 
for  the  laid  plastering ;  but  floated  plastering,  for  the  best  rooms,  is  performed  with  more 
care  than  is  required  in  an  inferior  style  of  work.  The  setting  for  the  floated  work,  is 
frequently  prepared  by  adding  to  it  about  one-sixth  of  Plaster  of  Paris,  that  it  may  fix 
more  quickly,  and  have  a  closer  and  more  compact  appearance.  This,  also,  renders  it 
more  firm,  and  better  adapted  for  being  whitened,  or  coloured  when  dry.  The  drier  the 
pricking-up  coat  of  plastering  is,  the  better  for  the  floated  stucco-work  ;  but  if  the  floating 
is  too  dry  before  the  last  coat  is  put  on,  there  is  a  probability  of  its  peeling  off,  or  crack- 
ing, and  thus  giving  tlie  ceiling  an  unsightly  appearance.  These  cracks,  and  other 
disagreeable  appearances  in  ceilings,  may  likewise  arise  from  the  weakness  of  the  laths, 
or  from  too  much  plastering,  or  from  strong  laths  and  too  little  plastering.  Good  floated 
work,  executed  by  a  judicious  hand,  is  very  unlikely  to  crack,  and  particularly  if  the 
lathing  be  properly  attended  to. 

Rendering  and  Set,  or  Rendering,  Floated,  and  Set,  includes  a  portion  of  the  pro- 
cess employed  in  both  tiic  previous  modes,  with  the  exception  that  no  lathing  is  required 
in  this  branch  of  the  work.  By  rendering  is  meant  that  one  coat  oi'  lime  and  hair  is  to 
be  plastered  on  a  wall  of  brick  or  stone;  and  the  set  implies  that  it  is  again  to  be  covered 
and  finished  with  fine  stuff,  or  putty.  The  method  of  performing  thi.s"is  similar  to  that 
already  described  for  the  setting  of  ceilings  and  partitions.  The  floated  and  set  is  per- 
formed on  the  rendering  in  the  same  manner  as  it  is  on  the  partitions  and  ceilings  of  the 
best  kind  of  plastering,  which  has  been  described. 

Trowelled-Stdcco  is  a  very  neat  kind  of  work,  much  used  in  dining-rooms,  vestibules, 
stair  cases,  «S;c.,  especially  when  the  walls  are  to  be  finished  by  painting.  This  kind 
of  stucco  requires  to  be  worked  upon  a  floated  ground,  and  the  floating  should  be  as  dry 


PLASTERING.  105 

as  possible  before  the  stviccding  is  began.  When  the  stucco  is  made,  as  before  described, 
it  is  beaten  and  tempered  with  clean  Avater,  and  is  then  fit  for  use.  In  order  to  use  it, 
the  plaster  is  provided  with  a  surall  float,  which  is  merely  a  piece  of  half-inch  deal,  about 
nine  inches  long  and  tliree  inches  wide,  planed  smooth,  and  a  little  rounded  away  on  its 
lower  edge ;  a  handle  is  fitted  to  the  upper  side,  to  enable  the  workman  to  move  it  with 
ease.  The  stucco  is  spread  upon  the  ground,  which  has  been  prepared  to  receive  it,  with 
the  largest  trowel,  and  made  as  even  as  possible.  When  a  piece,  four  or  five  feet  square, 
has  been  so  spread,  the  plasterer,  with  a  brush,  which  beholds  in  his  left  hand,  sprinkles 
a  small  part  of  the  stucco  with  water,  and  then  applies  the  float,  alternately  sprinkling 
and  rubbing  the  face  of  the  stucco,  till  he  reduces  the  whole  to  a  perfect  smooth  and 
even  surface.  The  water  has  the  eflfect  of  hardening  the  face  of  the  stucco;  so  that, 
when  well  floated,  it  feels  to  the  touch  as  smooth  as  glass. 

Cornices  are  plain  or  ornamented,  and  sometimes  include  a  portion  of  both;  in  the 
ornamented,  superior  taste  has  latterly  prevailed,  on  principles  derived  from  the  study 
of  the  antique.  The  preliminaries  in  the  formation  of  cornices  in  plastering,  consist  in 
the  examination  of  the  drawings  or  designs,  and  measuring  the  projections  of  the  mem- 
bers :  should  the  latter  be  found  to  exceed  seven  or  eight  inches,  bracketing  will  be  ne- 
cessary. 

Bracketing  consists  of  pieces  of  wood  fixed  up  at  about  eleven  or  twelve  inches  from 
each  other,  all  round  the  place  intended  to  have  a  cornice  ;  on  these  brackets  laths  are 
fastened,  and  the  whole  is  coAered  with  one  coat  of  plastering,  making  allowance  in  the 
brackets  for  the  stuff  necessary  to  form  the  cornice  ;  for  this  about  one  inch  and  a  quarter 
is  generally  found  sufficient.  When  the  cornice  has  been  so  far  forwarded,  a  mould 
must  be  made  of  the  profile  or  section  of  the  cornice,  exactly  representing  all  its  mem- 
bers ;  this  is  generally  prepared,  by  the  carpenters,  of  beach-wood,  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  thickness  ;  all  the  quirks,  or  small  sinkings,  being  formed  in  brass.  When  the 
mould  is  ready,  the  process  of  running  the  cornice  begins  :  tAVO  workmen  are  required  to 
perform  this  operation  ;  and  they  are  provided  with  a  tub  of  set,  or  putty,  and  a  quantity 
of  Plaster  of  Paris  ;  but  before  they  begin  with  the  mould,  they  guage  a  straight  line,  or 
screed,  on  the  wall  and  ceiling,  made  of  putty  and  plaster,  extending  so  far  on  each  as 
to  answer  to  the  bottom  and  top  of  the  cornice,  for  it  to  fit  into.  This  is  the  guide  for 
moving  the  mould  upon.  The  putty  is  then  mixed  with  about  one-third  of  Plaster  of 
Paris,  and  incorporated  in  a  semi-fluid  state,  by  being  diluted  with  clean  water.  One  of 
tlie  workmen  then  takes  two  or  three  trowels  full  of  the  prepared  putty  upon  his  hawk, 
which  he  holds  in  his  left  hand,  having  in  his  right  hand  a  trowel,  with  which  he  plas- 
ters the  putty  over  the  parts  where  the  cornice  is  to  be  formed;  the  other  workman  ap- 
plying the  mould  to  ascertain  where  more  or  less  of  it  is  required  ;  and,  when  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  has  been  put  on  to  fill  up  all  the  parts  of  the  mould,  the  other  workman 
moves  the  mould  backwards  and  forwards,  holding  it  up  firmly  to  the  ceiling  and  wall; 
thus  removing  the  superfluous  stuff,  and  leaving  in  plaster  the  exact  contour  of  the  cor- 
nice required.  This  is  not  effected  at  once,  but  the  other  workman  keeps  supplying  fresh 
putty  to  the  parts  which  want  it.  If  the  stuff  dries  too  fast,  one  of  the  workmen  sprinkles 
it  with  water  from  a  brush. 

When  the  cornices  are  of  very  large  proportions,  three  or  four  moulds  are  requisite, 
and  they  are  applied  in  the  same  manner  until  the  whole  of  their  parts  are  formed.  The 
mitres,  internal  and  external,  and  also  small  returns  or  breaks,  are  afterwards  modelled 
and  filled  up  by  hand. 

Ornamental  Cornices  are  formed  previously,  and  in  a  similar  way  (o  those  described, 
excepting  that  the  plasterer  leaves  indents  or  sinkings  in  the  mould  for  the  casts  to  be 
fixed  in.  The  plasterers  of  the  present  day  cast  all  of  their  ornaments  in  Plaster  of 
Paris  ;  whereas,  they  were  formerly  the  work  of  manual  labour,  performed  by  ingenious 
men  then  known  in  the  trade  as  ornamental  plasterers.     The  castingof  ornaments  in  moulds 

27 


106  PLASTERING. 

has  almost  superseded  this  branch  of  the  art;  and  the  few  individuals  now  living,  by 
whom  it  was  formerly  professed,  are  chiefly  employed  in  modelling  and  framingof  moulds. 

All  the  ornaments  which  are  cast  in  Plaster  of  Paris,  are  previously  modelled  in  clay. 
The  clay-model  exhibits  the  power  and  taste  of  the  designer,  as  well  as  that  of  the 
sculptor.  When  it  is  finished,  and  becomes  rather  firm,  it  is  oiled  all  over,  and  put  into 
a  wooden  frame.  All  its  parts  are  then  retouched  and  perfected,  for  receiving  a  covering 
of  melted  wax,  which  is  poured  warm  into  the  frame  and  over  the  clay-mould.  When 
cool,  it  is  turned  upside  down,  and  the  wax  comes  easily  away  from  the  clay,  and  is  an 
exact  reversed  copy.  In  such  moulds  are  cast  all  the  enriched  mouldings,  now  prepared 
by  common  plasterers.  The  waxen  models  are  made  so  as  to  cast  about  one  foot  in 
length  of  the  ornaments  at  a  time  ;  this  quantity  being  easily  removed  out  of  the  moulds, 
without  the  danger  of  breaking. 

The  casts  are  all  made  of  the  finest  and  purest  Plaster  of  Paris,  saturated  with  water. 
The  casts,  when  first  taken  out  of  the  moulds,  are  not  very  firm,  and  are  suffered  to  dry  a 
little,  either  in  the  air,  or  in  anoven  adapted  for  the  purpose ;  and  when  hard  enough  to  bear 
handling,  they  are  scraped  and  cleaned  up  for  the  workmen  to  fix  in  the  places  intended. 

The  Friezes,  and  Basso-Relievos  are  performed  in  a  manner  exactly  similar,  except 
that  the  waxen  moulds  are  so  made  as  to  allow  of  grounds  of  plaster  being  left  behind 
the  ornaments,  half  an  inch,  or  more,  in  thickness ;  and  these  are  cast  to  the  ornaments 
or  figures,  which  strengthen  and  secure  the  proportions. 

Capitals  to  columns  are  prepared  in  a  similar  way,  but  require  several  moulds  to 
complete  them.  The  Corinthian  capital  will  require  a  shaft  or  bell  to  be  first  made  ex- 
actly shaped,  so  as  to  produce  graceful  effects  in  the  foliage  and  contour  of  the  volutes; 
all  of  which,  as  well  as  the  other  details,  require  separate  and  distinct  reversed  moulds 
when  intended  for  capitals  made  to  order. 

The  plasterers,  as  before  mentioned,  in  forming  cornices,  in  which  ornaments  are  to  be 
used,  take  care  to  have  projections  in  the  running  moulds ;  which  liave  the  effect  of 
grooves  or  indents  in  the  cornices  ;  and  into  those  grooves  are  put  the  ornaments  after 
they  are  cast,  which  are  fixed  in  their  places  by  having  small  quantities  of  liquid  Plas- 
ter of  Paris  spread  at  their  backs.  Friezes  are  prepared  for  cornices,  &c.,  in  a  similar 
way,  by  leaving  projections  in  the  running  moulds,  at  tho,se  parts  of  the  cornices  where 
they  are  intended  to  be  inserted,  and  they  are  also  fi.Kcd  in  their  places  with  liquid  plas- 
ter. Detached  ornaments,  when  designed  for  ceilings,  or  any  other  parts,  to  which  run- 
ning moulds  have  not  been  employed,  are  cast  in  pieces  exactlv  corresponding  with  the 
designs,  and  are  fixed  upon  the  ceilings,  or  other  places,  with  white  lead. 

Plasterers  require  numerous  models  in  wood,  and  very  few  or  any  of  their  best  works 
can  be  completed  without  them.  But,  with  moulds,  good  plasterers  are  capable  of  ma- 
king the  most  exqui.5ite  mouldings,  pos.se.ssing  sharpness  and  breadths  unequalled  by  any 
other  modes  now  in  practice.  This,  however,  is  in  some  measure,  dependent  on  the  truth 
of  the  moulds.  Good  plastering  is  known  by  its  exquisite  appearance,  as  to  its  regular- 
ity, correctness,  solid  effect,  and  without  any  cracks  or  indications  of  them. 

ROMAN  CEMENT,  or  Outside  Stucco.— The  qualities  of  this  valuable  cement  is 
now  generally  known  in  every  part  of  the  United  Kingdom.  It  was  first  introduced  to 
public  notice  by  the  late  James  Wyatt,  Esq.,  eminent  for  having  planned  and  executed 
some  of  the  most  magnificent  and  useful  structures  in  these  countries.  It  was  originally 
known  as  Parker's  Patent  Cement,  and  was  sold  by  Mes.srs.  Charles  Wyatt  &  Co., 
Bankside,  London,  at  five  shMUngfi  and  sixpence  per  bushel  :  it  is  now  vended  by  different 
manufacturers  in  the  Metropolis  at  tlirec  sldllings  per  bushel,  and  even  less,  when  the 
casks  are  returned.  Equal  quantities  of  this  cement  and  sharp  clean  grit-sand,  mixed 
together,  will  form  very  hard  and  durable  coverings  for  the  outside  of  public  and  private 
edifices.     If  the  sand  is  wet  or  damp,  the  composition  should  be  used  immediately. 


PLASTERING.  107 

When  the  works  are  finished,  they  should  be  frescoed,  or  colored,  with  wash efs,  composed 
in  proportions  of  five  ounces  of  copperas  to  every  gallon  of  water,  and  as  much  fresh  lime 
and  cement  as  will  produce  the  colors  required.  Where  these  sorts  of  works  are  exe- 
cuted with  judgment,  and  finished  with  taste,  so  as  to  produce  picturesque  effects,  they 
are  drawn  and  joined  to  imitate  well-bonded  masonry,  and  the  divisions  promiscuously 
touched  with  rich  tints  of  umber,  and  occasionally  with  vitrol ;  and,  upon  these  colours 
mellowing,  they  will  produce  the  most  pleasing  and  harmonious  eilects ;  especially  if 
dashed  with  judgment,  and  with  the  skill  of  a  painter  who  has  profited  by  watching  the 
playful  tints  of  nature  produced  by  the  effects  of  time  in  the  mouldering  remains  of  our 
ancient  buildings. 

One  bushel  of  cement,  vised  with  discretion,  care,  and  judgment,  will  perform  from 
three  to  four  yards  superficial;  that  is,  mixed  with  an  equal  portion  of  clean,  sharp  grit- 
sand  ;  and,  in  procuring  the  latter  article,  great  pains  should  be  taken  to  select  such 
qualities  as  are  of  a  lively  and  binding  description,  and  free  from  all  slime  or  mud.  As 
soon  as  the  sand  and  cement  is  mixed  with  clean  water,  the  composition  should  be  used 
as  quick  as  possible,  and  not  a  moment  lost  in  floating  the  walls,  which  will  require  in- 
cessant labour,  until  the  cement  is  set,  which  is  almost  instantaneous. 

ROUGH-CASTING  is  an  outside  finishing  cheaper  than  stucco.  It  consists  in  giving 
the  wall  to  be  rough-casted  a  pricking-up  coat  of  lime  and  hair  ;  and  when  this  is  tolera- 
bly dry,  a  second  coat  of  the  same  material,  which  is  laid  on  the  first,  as  smooth  and 
even  as  can  be.  As  fast  as  this  coat  is  finished,  a  second  workman  follows  the  other 
with  a  pail  of  rough-cast,  which  he  throws  on  the  new  plastering.  The  materials  for 
rough-casting  are  compo.sed  of  fine  gravel,  with  the  earth  washed  cleanly  out  of  it,  and 
afterwards  mixed  with  pure  lime  and  water,  till  the  entire  together  is  of  the  consistence 
of  a  semi-fluid  ;  it  is  then  spread,  or  rather  splashed,  upon  the  wall  by  a  float  made  of  wood. 
This  float  is  five  or  six  inches  long,  and  as  many  wide,  made  of  half-inch  deal,  to  which  is 
fitted  a  rounded  deal  handle.  The  plasterer  holds  this  in  his  right  hand,  and  in  his  left  a 
common  white-wash  brush ;  with  the  former  he  lays  on  the  rough-cast,  and  with  the  latter 
which  he  dips  in  the  rough-cast,  he  brushes  and  colours  the  mortar  and  rough-cast  thathe 
has  spread,  to  make  them,  when  finished  and  dry,  appear  of  the  same  colour  throughout. 

SCAGLIOLA. — The  practice  of  forming  columns  with  Scagliola  is  a  distinct  branch 
of  plastering.  It  originated  in  Italy,  and  was  thence  introduced  into  France,  then  into 
England.  For  its  first  introduction  here,  our  country  is  indebted  to  the  late  Henry  Hol- 
land, Esq.,  who  was  for  many  years  the  favourite  architect  of  his  present  Majesty,  who 
caused  artists  to  be  invited  from  Paris  to  perform  such  works  in  Carlton  Palace ;  .some 
of  whom,  from  finding  a  considerable  demand  for  their  works,  remained  with  us,  and 
taught  the  art  to  our  British  workmen. 

In  order  to  execute  columns  and  their  anta?,  or  pilasters,  in  Scagliola,  the  following 
remarks  and  directions  are  to  be  observed  :  when  the  architect  has  finished  the  draw- 
ing, exhibiting  the  diameter  of  the  shafts,  a  wooden  cradle  is  made  about  two  and  a  half 
inches  less  in  diameter  than  that  of  the  projected  column.  This  cradle  is  lathed  all 
round,  as  for  common  plastering,  and  afterwards  covered  by  a  pricking-up  coat  of  lime 
and  hair:  when  this  is  quite  dry,  the  workers  in  Scagliola  commence  iheir  peculiar  labour. 

The  Scagliola  is  capable  of  imitating  the  most  scarce  and  precious  marbles;  the  imi- 
tation taking  as  high  a  polish,  and  feeling  to  the  touch  as  cold  and  solid  as  the  niost  compact 
and  dense  marble.  For  the  composition  of  it  the  purest  gypsum  must  be  broken  in  small 
pieces,  and  then  calcined  till  the  largest  fragments  have  lost  their  brilliancy.  The  calcined 
powder  is  then  passed  through  a  very  fine  seive,  and  mixed  up  with  a  solution  of  Flan- 
ders glue,  isinglass,  &c.,  with  the  colours  required  in  the  marble  they  are  about  to  imitate. 

When  the  work  is  to  be  of  various  colours,  each  colour  is  prepared  separately,  and 
they  are  afterwards  mingled  and  combined  nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  a  painter  mixes, 


108  MEASURING  AND  VALUATION. 

on  his  pallet,  the  primitive  colours  which  are  to  compose  his  different  shades.  When 
the  powdered  gypsum,  or  plaster,  is  prepared,  and  mingled  for  work,  it  is  laid  on  the 
shaft  of  the  column,  &c.,  covering  over  the  pricked-up  coat,  which  has  been  previously 
laid  on  it,  and  is  floated,  with  moulds  of  wood  to  the  sizes  required.  During  the  floating, 
the  artist  uses  the  colours  necessary  for  the  marble  intended  to  be  imitated,  which  thus 
become  mingled  and  incorporated  in  it.  In  order  to  give  his  work  the  polish  or  glossy 
lustre,  he  rubs  it  with  a  pumice-stone,  and  cleanses  it  with  a  wet  sponge.  He  next 
proceeds  to  polish  it  with  tripoli  and  charcoal,  and  fine  soft  linen  ;  and,  after  going  over 
it  with  a  piece  of  felt,  dipped  in  a  mixture  of  oil  and  tripoli,  finishes  the  operation  by  the 
application  of  pure  oil. 

This  is  considered  as  one  of  the  finest  imitations  in  the  world ;  the  Scagliola  being  as 
strong  and  durable  as  real  marble  for  all  works  not  exposed  to  the  effects  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, retaiiiing  its  lustre  as  long  and  equal  to  real  marble,  without  being  one-eighth 
of  the  expense  of  the  cheapest  marble  imported. 

COMPOSITION. — Besides  the  composition,  before  adverted  to,  for  covering  the  out- 
sides  of  buildings,  plasterers  use  a  finer  species  of  composition  for  inside  ornamental 
works.  The  material  alluded  to  is  of  a  brownish  colour,  exceedingly  compact,  and, 
when  completely  dry,  very  strong.  It  is  composed  of  powdered  whitening,  glue  in  solu- 
tion, and  linseed-oil ;  the  proportions  of  which  are  to  two  pounds  of  whitening,  one 
pound  of  glue,  and  half  a  pound  of  oil.  These  are  placed  in  a  copper  and  heated,  being 
stirred  with  a  spatula  till  the  whole  becomes  incorporated.  It  is  then  suffered  to  cool 
and  settle  ;  after  which  it  is  taken  and  laid  upon  a  stone,  covered  with  powdered  whiten- 
ing, and  beaten  till  it  becomes  of  a  tough  and  firm  consistence.  It  is  then  put  by  for  use, 
and  covered  with  wetted  cloths  to  keep  it  fresh. 

The  ornaments  to  be  cast  in  this  composition  are  modelled  in  clay,  for  common  plas- 
tering, and  afterwards  carved  in  a  block  of  box-wood.  The  carving  must  be  done  with 
great  neatness  and  truth,  as  on  it  depends  the  exquisiteness  of  the  ornament.  The  com- 
position is  cut  with  a  knife  into  pieces,  and  then  closely  pressed  by  hand  into  every  part 
of  the  mould  ;  it  is  then  placed  in  a  press,  worked  by  an  iron  screw,  by  which  the  com- 
position is  forced  into  every  part  of  the  sculpture.  After  being  taken  out  of  the  press, 
by  giving  it  a  tap  upside  down,  it  comes  easily  out  of  mould.  One  foot  in  length  is  as 
much  as  is  usually  cast  at  a  time  ;  and  when  this  is  first  taken  out  of  the  mould,  all  the 
superfluous  composition  is  removed  by  cutting  it  off  with  a  knife;  the  waste  pieces  being 
thrown  into  the  copper  to  assist  in  making  a  fresh  supply  of  composition. 

This  composition,  when  formed  into  ornaments,  is  fixed  upon  wooden  or  other  ground, 
by  a  solution  of  heated  glue,  white-lead,  &.c.  It  is  afterwards  painted  or  gilded,  to  suit 
the  taste  and  style  of  the  work  for  which  it  is  intended. 

PLASTERER'S  MEASURING  AND  VALUATION. 

The  measuring  and  valuation  of  plasterer  s  work  is  conducted  by  surveyors.  All 
common  plastering  is  measured  by  the  yard  square,  of  nine  feet;  this  includes  the  parti- 
tions and  ceilings  of  rooms,  stuccoing,  internally  and  externally,  &c.  &c.  Cornices  are 
measured  by  the  foot  superficial,  girting  their  members  to  ascertain  their  widths,  which 
multiplied  by  their  lengths,  will  produce  the  superficial  contents.  Running  measures 
consists  of  beads,  quirks,  arrises,  and  small  mouldings.  Ornamental  cornices  are  frequent- 
ly valued  in  this  way ;  that  is,  by  the  running  foot. 

The  labour  in  plasterer's  work  is  frequently  of  more  consideration  than  the  materials  ; 
hence  it  becomes  requisite  to  note  doAvn  the  exact  time  which  is  consumed  in  effecting 
particular  portions,  so  that  an  adequate  and  proper  value  may  be  put  upon  the  work. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 

FROM  Nicholson's  new  practical  builder. 


Aaron's  Rod  ;  an  ornamental  figure,  representing 
a  rod  with  a  serpent  twined  about  it,  and,  called  by 
some,  though  improperly,  the  Caduceiis  of  Mercury. 

Abacus  ;  the  upper  member  of  a  capital  of  a  column, 
serving  as  a  kind  of  crown-piece  in  the  Grecian  Doric, 
and  a  collection  of  members  or  mouldings  in  the  other 
Orders. 

Abreuvoir  or  Abrevior,  in  Masonry  ;  the  joint  or 
junction  of  two  stones  j  or  the  space  or  interstice  to 
be  filled  up  with  mortar  or  cement.  Abreuvoir  also 
signifies  a  Bathing  House  or  Place. 

Abutment  or  Butment;   See  Groin  Arches. 

Acanthus  ;  a  plant,  the  English  Bear's  Breech,  the 
leaves  of  which  are  represented  in  the  capital  of  the 
Corinthian  Order,  &c.  Acanthine  means  ornamented 
with  leaves  of  the  acanthus. 

Accessories ;  in  architectural  composition,  those 
parts  or  ornaments,  either  designed  or  accidental, 
which  are  not  apparently  essential  to  the  use  and  char- 
acter of  a  building. 

Accompaniments;  subordinate  buildings  or  orna- 
ments. 

Accoupleraent,  in  carpentry  ;  a  tie  or  brace,  or  the 
entire  work  when  framed. 

Acropolis  ;  from  the  Greek  :  the  highest  part  of  a 
city,  the  citadel  or  fortress. 

Acroterium ;  (plural,  Acroteria)  the  extremity  or 
vertex  of  any  thing;  a  pedestal  or  base  placed  on  the 
angle,  or  on  the  apex  of  a  pediment,  which  may  be  for 
the  support  of  a  vase  or  statue. 

^des ;  among  the  ancients,  an  inferior  kind  of 
temple. 

^gis  ;  in  decoration,  a  shield  or  breast-plate,  par- 
ticularly that  of  Minerva. 

iEgricanes  ;  sculptures  representing  the  heads  and 
sculls  of  rams  ;  commonly  used  as  a  decoration  of  an- 
cient altars,  friezes,  &c.  ^ 

jEneatores  ;  sculptures  representing  military  musi- 
cians. 

Aerial  Perspective  ;  the  representation  of  objects, 
weakened  and  diminished  in  proportion  to  the  distance 
from  the  eye. 

^toma ;  a  pediment,  or  the  tijmpanwn  of  a  pediment. 

Aile  or  Aisle ;  a  walk  in  a  church,  on  the  sides  of 
the  nave  ;  the  wings  of  a  choir. 

Air-trap;  an  opening  for  the  escape  and  admisssion 
of  air. 

Alcove ;  a  recess  or  part  of  a  chamber,  separated 
by  an  estrade,  or  partition  of  columns,  and  other  corre- 
sponding ornaments^ 

28 


Aroestyle  ;  the  greatest  interval  or  distance  that  can 
be  made  between  columns. 

Alto-relievo  or  High  relief;  that  kind  or  portion  of 
sculpture  which  projects  so  much  from  the  surface  to 
which  it  is  attached,  as  to  appear  nearly  insulated.  It 
is  therefore  used  in  comparison  with  JVIezzo-relievo,  or 
Mean-relief  and  in  opposition  to  Basso-relitvo,  or  Low 
relief. 

Amphitheatre  ;  a  spacious  edifice,  of  a  circular  or 
oval  form,  in  which  the  combats  and  shows  of  antiquity 
were  exhibited. 

Amphora  ;  (plural,  Amphorce)  a  vase  or  earthen  jar, 
with  two  handles  ;  among  the  ancients,  the  usual  re- 
ceptacles of  olives,  grapes,  oil,  and  wine.  Hence,  in 
decoration,  Ampkoral  means  shaped  like  an  amphora 
or  vase. 

Amulet ;  in  decoration,  a  figure  or  character  to 
which  miraculous  powers  are  supposed  to  be  attached, 
and  which  particularly  distinguished  the  buildings  of 
Egypt. 

Ancon ;  in  decoration,  a  curved  drinking  cup  or 
horn.     The  arm  of  a  chair. 

Ancones  ;  ornaments  depending  from  the  corona  of 
Ionic  door-ways,  &c.  The  trusses,  or  consoles,  or 
brackets,  sometimes  employed  in  the  dressings  of  ap- 
ertures, as  an  apparent  support  to  the  cornice,  upon 
the  flanks  of  the  architrave. 

Angels  ;  brackets  or  corbels,  with  the  figures  or 
heads  of  angels. 

Angle-Bar ;  the  upright  bar  of  a  window,  construct- 
ed on  a  polygonal  plan,  standing  at  the  meeting  ol  any 
two  planes  of  the  sides. 

Angle-Chimney ;  a  chimney  in  the  angle,  or  in  a 
side  formed  at  an  angle  of  the  apartment. 

Angle- Rafter,  in  carpentry,  otherwise  Hip-rafter. 

Angular  Capital ;  the  modern  Ionic  or  scammazion 
capital,  which  is  formed  alike  on  all  the  four  faces,  so 
as  to  return  at  the  angles  of  the  building. 

Annular- Vault ;  a  vault  rising  from  two  circular 
walls  ;  the  vault  of  a  circular  corridor. 

Annulet  or  Fillet ;  a  small  square  member  in  the 
Doric  capital,  under  the  quarter-round.  It  is  also  used 
to  imply  a  narrow  fiat  moulding,  common  to  the  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  column,  particularly  their  bases,  capi- 
tes, &c. 

AnttB  ;  a  species  of  pilasters  common  in  the  Gre- 
cian temples,  but  difliering  from  pilasters,  in  general, 
"both  in  their  capitals  and  situation. 

Apron,  in  plumbing,  the  same  as  Flashing. 

Arabesque,  or  Moresque  ;  something  done  after  the 


110 


GLOSSARY    OF    TECHNICAL    TERMS. 


manners  of  the   Arabians  or  Moors,  and  destitute  of 
human  and  animal  figuies. 

Arcade  ;  an  aperture  in  a  wall,  with  an  arched  head  : 
it  also  signifies  a  range  of  apertures  with  arched  heads. 
Arcades  arc  frequently  constructed  as  porticos,  instead 
of  Coionados,  being  stronger,  and  less,  expensive.  In 
the  construction,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  piers  be 
sufficiently  strong  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  arches, 
particularly  those  at  the  extremities.  The  arcades  of 
the  Romans  were  seen  in  triumphal  arches,  in  theatres, 
amphitheatres  and  aqueducts,  and  frequently  in  tem- 
ples. They  arc  couniion  in  the  piazzas  and  squares 
of  modern  cities,  and  may  be  employed,  with  great 
propriety,  in  the  courts  of  palaces,  &c. 

Arc-boutants,  or  Boutants  ;  arch-formed  props,  in 
Gothic  churches,  Sic,  for  sustaining  the  vaults  of  the 
nave  ;  their  lower  ends  resting  on  the  pilastered  but- 
tresses of  the  aisles,  aud  their  upper  ends  resisting  the 
pressure  of  the  middle  vault,  against  the  several  spring- 
ing points  of  the  groins.  They  are,  at  times,  called 
jlijing-buttresses,  arched  huHrcsses,  and  arch-hntments. 

Arch  ;  a  part  of  a  building  supported  at  its  extremi- 
ties only,  and  concave  towards  the  earth  or  horrizon  : 
but  arches  are  either  circular,  elliptical,  or  slraighf ; 
the  last  being  so  termed,  but  improperly  by  workmen. 
The  terms  arch  and  vault  properly  differ  only  in  this, 
that  the  arch  expresses  a  narrower,  and  the  vault  a 
broader  piece  of  the  same  kind. 

Arches,  straight ;  heads  of  apertures  which  have  a 
straight  intrados  "in  several  pieces,  with  radiating  joints, 
or  bricks  taporing  downwards, 

Architectonic  ;  something  endowed  with  the  power 
and  skill  of  building,  or  calculated  to  assist  the  archi- 
tect 

Architrave  ;  a  beam ;  that  part  of  an  entablature 
which  lies  immediately  upon  the  the  capital  or  head  of 
the  column 

B. 

Back  ;  generally  that  side  of  an  object  which  is  op- 
posite to  the  face,  or  breast :  but  th«  back  of  a  hand- 
rail, is  the  u])per  side  of  it ;  that  of  a  rafter,  is  the  up- 
per side  of  it  in  the  sloping  plane  of  one  side  of  a  roof. 

Back-shutters,  or  back-flaps  ;  additional  breadths 
hinged  to  the  iVont  shutters,  for  completely  closing  the 
apertures  when  the  window   is  to  be  shut. 

Bagnio ;  the  Italian  name  for  a  bath,  or  bathing- 
house  ;  answering  to  the  Greek  Balaneia,  and  the 
Latin  Balneum. 

Balcony;  (from  the  French  Balcon)  an  open  gallery, 
projecting  from  the  front  of  a  building,  and  commonly 
constructed  of  iron  or  wood.  AYhen  a  portico  or  porch 
is  surmounted  with  a  balconj',  it  is  commonly  of  stone, 
with  iron  or  wood. 

Ballustcr  ;  a  small  kind  of  column  or  pillar,  belong- 
ing to  a  Balustrade. 

Balustrade  ;  a  range  of  Balusters,  supporting  a  cor- 
nice, and  used  as  a  parapet  or  screen,  for  concealing  a 
roof  or  other  object. 

Bande  or  Band  ;  a  narrow  flat  surface,  having  its 
face  in  a  vertical  plane  :  hence  Bandelet,  a  little  band, 
any  flat  moulding  or  fillet. 


Bandel  Column  ;  a  column  encircled  with  Land^s,  or, 
annular  rustics. 

Barge  Course  ;  that  part  of  the  filing  which  projects 
over  the  gable  of  a  building,  and  is  made  up  below 
with  mortar. 

Base  ;  the  lowest  part  of  a  figure  or  body,  and  finish 
of  rooms,  &c. 

Ray-Window  ;  a  window  projecting  from  the  front, 
In  two  or  more  planes,  and  not  forming  the  segment  of 
a  circle. 

Breaking  Joint,  in  Carpentry  ;  a  provincial  term,  de- 
noting that  the  heading  joints  of  the  boards  of  a  floor 
fall  in  the  same  straight  line. 

Beam-filling  ;  filling  up  the  space,  with  stones  or 
bricks,  from  the  level  of  the  under  edges  of  the  beams 
to  that  of  their  upper  edges,  &c. 

Bearing- Wall  or  partition  ;  in  a  building,  is  a  wall 
resting  upon  the  solid,  and  supporting  some  other  part, 
as  another  wall,  &c. 

Belfry,  anciently  the  campanile  ;  the  part  of  a  steeple, 
in  which  the  bells  are  hung. 

Belvedere  ;  a  turret,  look-out,  or  observatory,  com- 
manding a  fine  prospect,  and  generally  very  orna- 
mental. 

Bindmg-Joists  ;  those  beams  in  a  floor  which  support 
transversely  the  bridgings  above,  and  the  ceiling-  joists 
below. 

Bittding-Rafters.  The  saine  as  Purlins.  See  Pur- 
lins. 

Boasting  ;  in  stone-cutting,  paring  the  stone  irregu- 
larly with  a  broad  chisel  and  mallet ;  in  carving,  tho 
rough  cutting  of  the  outline,  before  the  incisions  are 
made  for  the  minuter  parts, 

Boning  ;  in  carpentry  and  masonry,  the  art  of  ma- 
king a  plane  surface  by  the  guidance  of  the  eye.  Join- 
ers try  up  their  work  by  boning  viith  two  straight-edges, 
which  determine  whether  it  be  in  or  out  of  Winding  ; 
that  is  to  say,  whether  the  surface  be  twisted  or  a  plane. 

Bosse  or  Boss,  in  sculpture  ;  relief  or  prominence  : 
hence  Bnssage,  the  projection  of  stones  laid  rough,  to 
be  afterwards  carved  into  mouldings,  capitals,  or  other 
ornaments.  Bossage  is  also  that  which  is  othei  wise 
called  Rustic  work ;  consisting  of-  stones  which  seem 
to  advance  beyond  the  naked  of  a  building,  from  in- 
dentures or  channels  left  in  the  joinings  ;  these  are 
used  chiefly  in  the  corners  of  edifices,  and  thence  call- 
ed Rustic  (jiioins. 

Boulder- Walls ;  those  constructed  of  flints  or  peb- 
ples,  laid  in  strong  mortar. 

Bow-Window  ;  a  window  forming-  the  segment  of  a 
circle. 

Broad-stone  ;  the  same  as  Free-stone.     . 

Buflct ;  an  ornamented  cupboard,  or  cabinet  for  plate, 
glasses,  china,  &c. 

Burrs  ;  clinker  bricks. 

Hutment,  see  .flhntmcnt. 

Bu(t-end  of  timber  ;  the  largest  end  next  to  the  root. 

Buttery  ;   a  store-room  for  provisions. 

Buttress  or  Plaster  Bricks  ;  those  made  with  a  notch 
at  one  end,  half  the  length  of  the  brick,  and  used  for 
binding  work  built  with  great  brick. 

Buttresses,  flying,  &c.,  see  Jlrc-houtanis. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TEHMS. 


in 


Cauducecs,  an  emblem  or  attribute  of  Mercury  ;  a 
rod  entwined  by  two-winged  serpents. 

Camber  ;  an  arch  on  the  top  of  an  aperture,  or  on 
the  top  of  a  beam  :   whence  Camher-windows,  &c. 

Campana  ;   the  body  of  the  Corinthian  capital. 

Canipanir,  or  Campanula,  or  Guttx  ;  the  drops  of 
the  Doric  architrave. 

Campanile  ;  ancient  name  for  a  belfry. 

Cant-moukiing  ;  a  bevelled  surface,  neither  perpen- 
dicular to  the  horizon,  nor  to  the  vertical  surface  to 
which  it  may  be  attached. 

Cap,  in  joinery  ;  the  uppermost  of  an  assemblage 
of  parts  ;  as  the  capital  of  a  column,  the  cornice  of  a 
door,  &c. 

Carcase  roofing ;  that  which  supports  the  covering 
by  a  grated  frame  of  timber-work. 

Caryatida"  or  Caryatides  ;  so  called  from  the  Carya- 
tides, a  people  of  Caria  ;  an  order  of  columns  or  pilas- 
ters, under  the  figure  of  women  dressed  in  long 
robes,  at'ter  the  manner  of  the  Carian  people,  and  serv- 
ing to  support  an  entablature.  This  order  is  styled  the 
Caryatic. 

Case  of  a  Door  ;  the  frame  in  which  the  door  is  hung. 

Casements  ;  sashes  or  glass  frames,  opening  on 
hinges,  andrevolving  upon  one  of  the  vertical  edges. 

Castellated  ;   built  in  imitation  of  an  ancient  castle. 

Catacomb;  a  subterraneous  place  for  the  interment 
of  the  dead. 

Cement ;  a  composition. 

Chain-timber,  in  brick  building  ;  a  timber  of  large 
dimensions  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  height  of  a  sto- 
ry, for  imparting  strength. 

Chancel  ;  the  communion  place,  or  that  part  of  a 
Christian  church  between  the  altar  and  balustrade 
which  encloses  it. 

Chantry ;  a  small  chapel,  on  the  side  of  a  church,  &c. 

Chapiter  ;   the  same  as  Capital. 

Chaplet ;  a  small  carved  or  ornamented  fillet. 

Clamping,  in  joinery;   securing  boards  with  clamps. 

CloacfB  ;  The  Roman  name  for  sewers,  drains,  and 
sinks,  conveying  filth  from  the  city  into  the  river. 

Coffer-dam  ;  a  hollow  space,  formed  by  a  double 
range  of  piles,  with  clay  rammed  in  between,  for  the 
purpose  of  constructing  an  entrance-lock  to  a  canal, 
dock,  or  basin.     See  also  Batterdeittt, 

Cogging.    See  Cocliuo: 

Coin,  or  Quoin  ;  a  corner  or  an^e  made  by  the  two 
surfaces  of  a  stone  or  brick  building,  whether  external 
or  internal.' 

Collar;  a  ring  or cincturei 

Collonade  ;  a  range  of  columns,  whether  attached 
or  insulated,  and  supporting  the  entablature. 

Comparted  ;  divided  into  smaller  parts  ;  or  partition- 
ed into  smaller  spaces. 

Conservatory  ;  a  superior  kind  of  Greenhouse;  for 
valuable  plants,  &c.,  arranged  in  beds  of  earth,  with 
ornamental  boarders. 

Console  ;  a  bracket  or  projecting  body,  shaped  like 
a  curve  of  contrary  flexure,  scrolled  at  the  ends,  and 
serving  to  support  a  cornice,  bust,  vase,  or  other  orna- 


ment.    Consoles  are   also  called,  according  to   their 
form,  dncoiics  or  trusscsj  mulidcs,  and  modillions. 

Continued ;  uninterrupted  ;  unbroken  ;  as  a  continued 
attic,  pedestal,  &c.,  not  broken  by  pilasters  or  columns. 

Contour ;  a  French  word  for  Oullitie. 

Coping  ;  the  stones  laid  on  the  top  of  a  wall,  to 
strengthen  and  defend  it  from  injury. 

Corbeils  ;  carved  work,  representing  baskets  filled 
with  fruit  or  flowers,  and  used  as  a  finish  to  some  ele- 
gant part  of  a  building.  This  word  is  sometimes  used 
to  express  the  bell  or  vase  of  the  Corinthian  capital. 

Corbels  ;  a  horizontal  row  of  stones  or  timber,  fixed 
in  a  wall  or  on  the  side  of  a  vault,  for  sustaining  the 
timbers  of  a  floor  or  of  a  roof;  the  ends  projecting  out 
six  or  eight  inches,  as  occasion  may  require,  in  the 
manner  of  a  shoulder-piece,  and  cut  at  the  end  accord- 
ing to  fancy,  in  form  of  an  ogee,  &c.,  the  upper  side 
being  flat.  In  the  castellated  style  of  architecture,  the 
Corbels  are  a  range  of  stones  projecting  from  a  wall, 
for  the  purpose  of  supporting  a  parapet  or  superior  part 
of  the  wall,  which  projects  beyond  the  inferior  part. 

Cornice  ;  a  crowning  ;  any  moulded  projection  which 
crowns  or  finishes  the  part  to  which  it  is  attached. 
The  Cornice  of  an  order  is  a  secondary  member  of  the 
order  itself,  or  a  primary  member  of  the  entablature. 
The  latter  is  divided  into  three  principal  parts,  and  the 
upper  one  is  the  cornice. 

Cornucopia ;  the  horn  of  plenty ;  represented  ia 
sculpture  under  the  figure  of  a  large  horn  out  of  which 
issue  fruits,  flowers,  grain,  &c. 

Corridor  ;  a  long  gallery  or  passage  around  a  build- 
ing, and  leading  to  the  several  apartments. 

Counter-forts  ;  projections  of  masonry  from  a  wall, 
at  certain  regular  distances,  for  strengthening  it  or  re- 
sisting a  pressure. 

Counter-guage,  in  carpentry  ;  a  method  of  mea- 
suring joints  by  transferring  the  breadth  of  a  mortise  to 
the  place  of  the  other  timber  where  the  tenon  is  to  be 
made. 

Counter-lath,  in  tiling  ;  a  lath  placed,  by  eye,  be- 
tween every  two  guaged  ones,  so  as  to  divide  every 
interval  into  two  equal  parts. 

Country-house-     See  Villa. 

Coupled  Columns  ;  those  disposed  in  pairs;  so  as  to 
form  a  narrow  and  wide  interval  alternately. 

Couples  ;  rafters  framed  together  in  pairs,  with  a 
tie,  which  is-  generally  fixed  above  the  feet  of  the  raf- 
te'rs. 

Course  ;  a  continued  level  range  of  stones  or  bricks, 
in  a  wall,  &c. 

Coursing  Joint ;  the  joint  between  two  courses. 

Cove  ;  any  kind  of  concave  moulding  ;  also  the  con- 
cavity of  a  vault.  Hence,  a  cored  and  flat  ceiling  is  a 
ceiling  of  which  the  section  is  a  portion  of  a  circle, 
springing  from  the  walls,  and  rising  to  a  flat  surface. 

Cover,  in  slating  ;  the  part  of  the  slate  that  is  hid- 
den :   the  exposed  part  being  called  the  margin. 

Cover-way,  in  roofing  ;  the  recess  or  internal  angle 
left  to  receive  the  covering. 

Covered-way  ;  a  passage  arched  over. 

Coving  ;  an  exterior  projecture,  in  an  arched  form, 
now   disused.     The  covings  of  a  fire-place  are   the 


112 


GLOSSART  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


inclined  vertical  parts  on  the  sides,  so  formed  for  con- 
tracting the  space,  &c. 

Crociicts  ;  in  the  pointed  style  of  architecture,  the 
small  ornaments  placed  equi-distantly  along  the  angles 
of  pediments,  pinacles,  &c. 

Crosetts,  in  decoration ;  the  trusses  or  consoles  on 
the  flanks  of  the  architrave,  under  the  cornice. 

Cross-springers  ;  in  groins  of  the  pointed  style,  the 
ribs  that  spring  from  one  diagonal  pier  to  the  other. 

Crown  ;  the  uppermost  member  of  a  cornice,  inclu- 
ding the  corona,  &c.  Of  an  arch,  its  most  elevated 
line  or  point. 

Crypt ;  an  ancient  name  for  the  lowest  part  or  apart- 
ment of  a  building. 

Cupola  ;   a  dome,  arched  roof,  or  turret. 

Cusps;  the  pendents  of  a  pointed  arch,  &c.,  two  of 
which  form  a  trefoil,  three  a  quadrefoil,  four  a  cinque- 
foil,  &c. 

Cylindro-spheric  groin.     See  Groin, 

D, 

Dead-shoar  ;  an  upright  piece  of  wood,  built  up  in 
a  wall  which  has  been  broken  through,  in  order  to  make 
some  alteration  in  the  building. 

Demi,  or  Semi,  or  Hemi,  signifies  one  halt  Hence 
Semi-circle,  Hemi-sphere,  &c. 

Demi-relievo,  in  carving  or  sculpture,  denotes  that 
the  figure  rises  one  half  from  the  plane.  See  Alto- 
relievo. 

Die  of  a  pedestal ;  the  part  comprehended  between 
the  base  and  cornice. 

Diglyph  ;  a  tablet  with  two  engravings  or  channels. 

Diminished  Bar,  in  joinery ;  the  bar  of  a  sash  that 
is  thinest  on  the  inner  edge. 

Dish-out ;  to  form  coves  by  means  of  ribs,  or  wood- 
en vaults  for  plastering  upon. 

Di-stemper  ;  in  painting,  the  working  up  of  colours 
with  something  besides  mere  water  or  oil,  as  size,  or 
other  glutinous  or  unctuous  substances. 

Ditriglyph;  having  two  triglyphs  over  an  inter  col- 
umn. 

Double-hung  sashes  ;  in  joinery,  those  of  which  the 
■window  contains  two,  and  each  moveable  by  means  of 
weights  and  lines. 

Dove-tailing  ;  in  joinery,  a  method  of  festening  one 
piece  of  wood  to  another,  by  projecting  bits,  cut  in  the 
form  of  dove-tails  in  one  piece,  and  let  into  correspond- 
ing hollows  in  another. 

Dressings ;  all  mouldings  projecting  beyond  the 
naked  of  walls  or  ceilings. 

Drops  ;  in  ornamental  architecture,  small  pendent 
cylinders,  or  frustrums  of  cones  attached  to  a  surface 
vertically,  with  the  upper  ends  touching  a  horizontal 
surface,  as  in  the  cornice  of  the  Doric  order. 

Drum  or  Vase,  of  the  Corinthian  and  Composite 
capitals  ;  the  solid  part  to  which  the  foliage  and  stalks, 
or  ornaments  are  attached. 

Dwarf-wainscoting ;  that  wainscoting  which  does  not 
reatih  to  the  usual  height. 

Dwarf-walls ;  those  of  less  height  than  the  story  of 
buil  ading. 


Dye  ;  the  plain  part  of  a  pedestal,  between  the  base 
and  cornice. 

E. 

Eaves  ;  the  margin  or  edge  of  a  roof,  overhanging 
the  walls. 

Elbows  of  a  Window ;  the  two  flanks  of  panneled 
work,  one  under  each  shutter,  and  generally  tongued 
or  rebatted  into  the  back. 

Embattled  ,  a  building  with  a  parapet,  having  em- 
brasures, and  therefore  resembling  a  battery  or  castle. 

Embossing  ;  forming  work  in  relievo,  whether  cast, 
moulded,  or  cut  with  a  chisel.  See  Jillo  and  Demi- 
relievo. 

Epistylium,  or  architrave  of  the  entablature. 

Estrade  ;  a  French  word  for  a  public  walk.  In  a 
room,  a  small  elevation  of  the  floor,  frequently  encom- 
passed with  a  rail  or  alcove. 

F. 

Faqade  ;  the  face  or  front  of  a  building. 

Facings  ;  in  joinery,  those  fi.xed  parts  of  wood-work 
which  cover  the  rough  woric  of  the  interior  sides  of 
walls,  &c. 

Falling-moulds  ;  in  joinery,  the  two  moulds  which 
are  to  be  applied  to  the  vertical  sides  of  the  rail-piece, 
in  order  to  form  the  back  and  under  surface  of  the  rail, 
and  finish  the  squaring. 

Flyers  ;  steps,  of  which  the  treads  are  all  parallel. 

Flying  buttresses.     See  Arc-Bouiant. 

Framing  of  a  house  ;  all  the  timber-work,  compre- 
hending the  carcase  flooring,  partitioning,  roofing,  ceil- 
ing, beams,  <kc. 

Franking  ;  in  sash-making,  is  the  operation  of  cut- 
ting a  small  excavation  on  the  side  of  a  bar  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  transverse  bar,  so  that  no  more  of  the 
wood  be  cut  away  than  may  suffice  to  show  a  mitre 
when  the  two  bars  are  joined  together. 

Fret ;  a  species  of  ornament,  commonly  composed 
of  straight  grooves  or  channelures  at  right  angles  to 
each  other.  The  labyrinth  fret  has  many  turnings  or 
angles,  but  in  all  cases  the  parts  are  parallel  and  per- 
pendicular with  each  other. 

Frosted  ;  a  species  of  rustic  work,  representing  ice 
formed  by  irregular  drops  of  water. 

Frowey  timber  ;  such  as  works  freely  to  the  plane, 
without  tearing. 

G. 

Gable  ;  the  triangular  part  of  the  wall  of  a  house  or 
buildliig  immediately  under  the  roof. 

Galilee  ;  a  porch  constructed  at  or  near  the  west  end 
of  the  great  abbey  churches,  where  the  monks  and 
clergy  assembled  on  proceeding  to,  and  returning  from 
processions,  dec. 

Gangway  ;  in  building,  the  temporary  rough  stair, 
-set  up  for  ascending  or  descending,  before  the  regular 
stair  is  built. 

Gathering  of  the  wings,  in  a  chimney  ;  the  sloping  part 
above  the  fire-place,  where  the  funnel  contracts  or  tapers. 

Guage  or  Gage  ;  in  carpentry  and  joinery,  a  tool  for 


GLOSSARY    OF    TECHNICAL    TEUMS. 


113 


drawing  a  line  or  lines  on  any  side  of  a  piece  of  stuff, 
parallel  to  one  of  the  arrises  of  that  side. 

Girt.      The  same  as  Fillet. 

Gorge  ;  a  concave  inoLdding,  much  less  recessed 
than  a  scotia.  This  word  is  sometimes  used  for  the 
cyna-i  ccla. 

Uolhic,  more  properly  British,  architecture. 

Greek  Orders  of  arcliitcctun;  ;  the  Doric,  Ionic,  and 
Corinthian.     Sec  these  names  respectively. 

tfrilfiii,  or  Grilibn  ;  a  tahulous  animal,  sacred  to 
Apollo,  and  mostly  represented  witii  the  head  and  wings 
of  an  eagle,  and  the  body,  legs,  and  tail  of  a  lion.  It 
was  a  common  ornament  of  ancient  temples. 

Groin  ,  the  hollow  fonned  by  the  intersection  of  two 
or  more  simple  vaults,  crossing  each  other  at  the  same 
height.  Groins  of  dilTerent  forms  arc  distinguished  by 
particular  designations,  as  follow  : 

Conic  Groin  is  a  groin  formed  by  the  intersection 
of  one  |)Drtion  of  a  cone  with  another. 

CoHO-conic  Groin  is  one  which  is  formed  by  the  in- 
tersection of  one  conic  vault  piercing  another  of  great- 
er allitude. 

Cijlindrical  Groin  ;  that  which  is  foniicd  by  the  in- 
tersection of  one  portion  of  a  cylinder  with  another. 

Cijlindroidic  Groin  ;  that  which  is  formed  by  the 
intersection  of  one  portion  of  a  cylinder  with  another. 

Cijlindro-cijlindric  Groin  is  that  which  is  formed  by 
the  intersection  of  two  unequal  cylindric  vaults. 

Equi-angidar  Groin  is  that  in  which  the  several  axes 
of  the  simple  vaults  form  equal  angles  around  the  same 
point,  in  the  same  horizontal  plane. 

JMultan^idar  Groin  is  that  which  is  formed  by  three 
or  more  simple  vaults  piercing  eacli  other. 

Rectangular  Groin  is  that  which  has  the  axis  of  the 
simple  vault  in  two  vertical  planes,  at  right  angles  to 
each  other. 

Spheric  Groin  is  that  which  is  formed  by  the  inter- 
section of  one  portion  of  a  sphere  with  another. 

Cylindro-spheric  Groin;  that  which  is  formed  by  the 
intersection  ofa  cylindric  vault  with  a  spheric  vault ;  the 
spheric  portion  being  of  less  height  than  the  cylindrical. 

Spliero-cylindric  Groin  is  that  which  is  formed  by 
the  intersection  of  a  cylindric  vault  with  a  spheric  vault, 
the  spheric  portion  being  greater  in  height  than  the 
cylindric. 

Groined  ceiling ;  a  cradling  constructed  of  ribs, 
lathed  and  plastered. 

Groins  and  Arches,  in  carpentry. 

Groins  of  Bricks,  construction  in  masonry  ;  a  small 
recess  made  with  a  plane. 

Grotesque  ;  the  light,  gay,  and  beautiful  style  of  or- 
nament, practised  by  the  ancient  Romans  in  the  deco- 
ration of  their  palaces,  baths,  villas,  &c.  It  is  supposed 
to  have  originated  from  the  hieroglyphics  of  Egypt, 
where  the  human  body  may  be  seen  fantastically  at- 
tached to  foliage,  vases,  and  other  figures. 

H. 

Half-Space  or  resting  place,  in  stairs,  &c. 
Hall ;  a  word  commonly  denoting  a  mansion  or  large 
public  building,  as  well  as  the  large  room  at  the  entrance. 
1,  29 


Hammer-Beam ;  a  transverse  beam  at  the  foot  of 
the  rafter,  in  the  usual  place  of  a  tie. 

Hanging  of  doors  and  shutters.     Sec  Hanging. 

Heart-bond  ;  in  masonry,  the  lapping  of  one  stone 
over  two  others,  together  making  the  breadth  ofa  wall. 

Helix  ;  little  scrolls  in  the  Corinthian  capital,  also 
called  UrillK. 

Hem;  the  projecting  and  spiral  parts  of  the  Ionic 
capital. 

Hollow-wall ;  a  wall  built  in  two  thicknesses,  leav- 
ing a  cavity  between,  which  may  be  either  for  saving 
materials,  or  for  preserving  a  uniform  temperature  in 
apartments. 

Housing  i  the  space  excavated  out  of  one  body  for 
the  insertion  of  some  part  of  the  extremity  of  another, 
in  order  to  unite  or  fasten  the  same  together. 

Hovelini^;  carrying  up  the  sides  of  a  chimney,  so 
that  when  the  w  ind  rushes  over  the  mouth,  the  smoke  may 
escape  below  the  current  or  against  any  one  side  of  it. 

I. 

Impost;  the  footing  of  an  arch,  &c. 

Intaglios ;  the  carved  work  of  an  order  or  any  part 
of  an  edifice,  on  which  heads  or  other  ornaments  may 
be  sculptured. 

Intercolumn ;  the  open  area  or  space  between  two 
columns. 

Inter-dentils  ;  the  space  between  dentils. 

Inter-fenestration ;  the  space  between  windows. 

Inter-joist ;   the  space  between  joists. 

Inter-pilaster  ;  the  space  between  pilasters. 

Inter-quarter ;  the  space  between  two  quarters. 

Intersole  or  Mezzanine. 

Intrados,  of  a  vault,  the  concavity  or  inner  surface. 
See  Extrados. 

Involution  or  Raising  of  Powers. 

Isodomum.     See   Walt. 


Jambs  :  the  vertical  side  of  an  aperture,  as  of  doors, 
windows,  &c. 

Jamb-lining  ;  the  lining  of  a  jamb. 

Jamb-post;  a  post  fixed  on  the  side  of  a  door,  &c., 
and  to  which  the  jamb-lining  is  attached. 

Jamb-stones  ;  in  walls,  those  used  in  building  the 
sides  of  an  aperture,  and  of  which  every  alternate  stone 
should  have  the  whole  thickness  of  the  wall. 

Jettee  or  Jetty,  in  masonry. 

Joggle  ;  the  joint  of  two  substances,  as  of  wood,  &c, 
so  formed  as  to  prevent  their  sliding  past  each  other. 

Joggle-piece,  in  carpentry. 

K. 

Keep  ;  in  a  castle,  the  middle  or  principal  tower. 

Kerf,  in  carpentry. 

Keyed-dado  ;  dado,  secured  from  warping  by  bars 
grooved  into  the  back. 

Keyes  :  in  naked  flooring,  are  pieces  of  timber  framed 
in,  between  every  two  joints,  by  mortise  and  tenon.  If 
driven  fast  between  each  pair,  with  the  ends  butting 


114 


GLOSSARY    OF    TECHNICAL    TEHMS. 


against  the  grain  of  the  joists,  they  are  denominated 
'  strutting  pieces. 

Keyes ;  in  joinery,  pieces  of  wood  let  transversely  into 
the  back  of  a  board,  especially  when  made  of  several 
breadths  of  timber,  either  by  dove-tailing  or  grooving. 

Knotting ;  in  painting,  the  process  for  preventing 
knots  appearing  in  the  finish. 


Label  ;  an  ornament  placed  over  a  window  or  other 
aperture,  generally  in  a  castellated  building,  and  con- 
sisting of  a  horizontal  portion  over  the  head,  with  a  part 
at  each  end  reluming  downwards  at  a  right  angle  :  the 
latter  may  be  terminated  by  a  bead,  but  it  more  fre- 
quently returns  again  at  a  right  angle  outwards  or  hori- 
zontally. 

Labyrinth  ;  an  intricate  building,  so  contrived  by  its 
meandering  form,  as  to  render  it  difficult  for  those  who 
have  entered,  to  find  the  way  out  again.  Hence  a 
Labyrinth-fret,  a  fret  with  many  turnings,  which  was  a 
favorite  ornament  of  the  ancients.     See  Fret. 

Lacunaria;,  or  Lacunars  ;  panels  or  coffers  formed 
on  the  ceilings  of  apartments,  and  sometimes  on  the 
soffits  of  corronsD  in  the  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  Compo- 
site orders. 

Lancet-arch  ;   the  same  as  pointed-arch. 
Landing  of  Stairs.     See  Slaii-s. 
Lantern;  a  turret  raised  above  the   roof,  with   win- 
dows round  the  sides,  constructed  for  lighting  an  apart- 
ment beneath. 

Larmier,  or  Larmer.     See  Corona. 
Lath-bricks;   a  sort  of  bricks,  much  longer  than  the 
ordinary  sort,  and  used  for  drying  malt  upon. 

Ledgers  in  scaffolding  for  brick  buildings,  the  hori- 
zontal pieces  of  timber  parallel  to  the  wall,  and  fastened 
to  the  standards  by  cords,  for  supporting  the  put-logs. 
On  the  last  are  laid  the  boards  for  working  upon. 

Lever-boards  ;  a  set  of  boards,  parallel  to  each  other, 
so  connected  together  that  they  may  be  turned  to  any 
angle,  for  the  admission  of  more  or  less  air  or  light ; 
or  so  as  to  lap  upon  each  other  and  exclude  both. 

Lining ;  the  covering  of  the  interior  surface  of  a 
hollow  body,  and  used  in  opposition  to  casing  the  ex- 
terior surface. 

Lining  out ;  drawing  lines  on  a  piece  of  timber,  &c. 
so  as  to  cut  it  into  boards,  planks,  or  other  figures. 

Lintels,  in  carpentry  and  in  masonry;  pieces  of  wood 
or  stone  over  apertures  in  walls. 

Listing;  in  carpentry  or  joinery,  the   act  of  cutting 
away  the  sap-ivood  from  one  or  both  edges  of  a  board. 
Lobby  ;  a  small  hall  or  waiting  room,  or  the  entrance 
mto  a  principal  apartment. 

Luffer-boarding  ;  a  series  of  boards  placed  in  an 
aperture,  very  frequently  in  lanterns,  so  as  to  admit  air 
into  the  interior,  and  exclude  rain. 

Lunette  ;  an  aperture  in  a  cylindric,  cylindroidic,  or 
spherical  ceiling  ;  the  head  of  the  aperture  being  also 
cylindric  or  cylindroidic. 

Luthern  ;  a  kind  of  window,  over  the  cornice,  in  the 
roof  of  a  building,  formed  perpendicularly  over  the 
naked  of  the  wall,  for  the  purpose  of  illuminating  the 


upper  story.     They  are  denominated  according  to  their 
forms,  as  square,  semi-circular,  bull's  eyes,  &c. 

M. 

Mansion  ;  a  large  dwelling  house  or  habitation  :  the 
chief  house  of  a  manor,  &c. 

Mantels  of  fire-places;  the  embellishments  or  furni- 
ture of  a  fire-place. 

Mantle-tree ;  the  lower  part  of  the  breast  of  a  chim- 
ney, now  by  law,  in  disuse;  an  iron  bar,  or  brick,  or 
stone,  being  submitted. 

Marble  ;  a  species  of  lime-sionc,  too  well  kno«n  to 

require  description.      It  is  found   in   almost  every  part 

of  the  world,  more  especially  Italy,  but  there  are  many 

)  fine  varieties  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

j      Mechanical  Posvers  ;   such   implements  or  machines 

as  are    used  for  raising  great  weights,  or   overcoming 

greater  resistances,  than  could  be   effected  by  the  na- 

I  tural  strength  without  them.     The    simple  machines, 

called  Alechanical powers,  are  six  in  number  ;  viz.   th& 

lever,  the  wheel  and  axle,  the  pulley,  the  inclined  plane, 

the  wedge,  and   the  screw  ;  and  of  these  all  the  most 

compound  engines  consist. 

The  general  principle  is,  that  the  power  or  advantage 
gained  by  any  of  these  machines,  be  it  ever  so  simple 
or  ever  so  compound,  is  as  great  as  the  space  moved 
through  by  the  working  power  is  greater  than  the  space 
through  which  the  weight  or  resistance  moves  during 
the  time  of  working.     Thus,  if  that  part  of  the  machine 
j  to  which  the  working  power  is  applied  moves   through 
10,  20,  or    1000  times  as  much  space  as  the  weight 
moves  through  in  the  same  time,  a  person  who  has  just 
strength  enough  to  work  the  machine  will  raise  10,  20, 
or  lOOO   times   as   much   by  it  as  he  could  do  by  his 
natural  strength  without  it :   but  then  llie  time  lost  uill 
I  he  altcays  as  great  a.i  the  poiccr  gained  :   for  it  \\  ill  re- 
quire 10,  20,  or  1000  times  as  much  time  for  the  power 
to  move   through  that  number   of  feet  or  inches  as  it 
would  do  to  move  through  one  foot,  or  one  inch,  &c. 
I      Medallion  ;   a  circular  tablet,  ornamented  with  em- 
bossed or  carved  figures,  bustos,  &c. 
'      Member;  any  part  of  an  edifice  or  of  a  moulding. 
J      Meros  ;   the  middle  part  of  a  trigliph.    See  Triglijih. 
Metope  ;  in  the  Doric  frieze,  the  square  piece  or  in- 
!  terval    between  the    trigliphs,  or  between  one  trigliph 
i  and  another.     The  metopes  are  sometimes  left  naked 
|,  but  are  more  commonly  adorned  with  sculpture.    When 
I  there  is  less  space  than  the  common  metope,  which  is 
;  square,  as  at  the  corner  of  the  frieze,  it  is  called  a  semi 
or  demi-metope. 

Mezzo-relievo  or  Demi-relievo  ;  sculpture  in    half 
relief.      See  Allo-rcHcro. 
Middle  Post ;   in  a  roof,  the  same  as  King  Post. 
Minnaret;  a  Turkish  steeple  with  a  balcony. 
Mitreing  angles,joining  an  angle  by  way  of  a  n)itre  box 
Monopteron,  or  Monoptral  Temple  ;   an  edifice  con- 
sisting of  a   circular   colonnade,  supporting  a  dome, 
without  any  inclosing  wall. 

Monofrigliph  ;  having  only  one  trigliph  between  two 
adjoining  columns  :  the  general  practice  in  the  Grecian 
Doric. 


GLOSSARY  OP  TECHNICAL  TEllM*. 


116 


Moresque,  or  Moresk.     See  Arabesque. 

Mosaic,  or  Mosaic  Work ;  an  assemblage  or  com- 
bination of  small  pieces  of  marble,  glass,  stones,  &c., 
of  various  colours  and  forms,  cemented,  on  a  ground 
so  as  to  imitate  paintings.  Mosaic  work  of  marble, 
which  is,  from  its  nature,  very  expensive,  may  be  fre- 
quently found  in  the  pavements  of  temples,  palaces,  &c. 

Museum  ;  originally,  a  palace  at  Alexandria,  which 
occupied  a  considerable  part  of  the  city  ;  it  was  thus 
named  from  its  being  dedicated  to  the  Muses,  and  ap- 
propriated to  the  cultivation  of  the  sciences  and  of 
general  knowledge. 


Naked  of  a  wall  or  column  ;  the  plain  surface,  in 
distinction  from  the  ornaments.  Thus  the  JYaked  of  a 
wall  is  the  flat  plain  surface  that  receives  the  mould- 
ings ;  and  the  naked  of  a  column  or  pilaster  is  its  base 
surface. 

Nave  ;  the  body  of  a  church,  reaching  from  the  choir 
or  chancel  to  the  principal  door. 

Nebule  ,■  a  zigzag  ornament,  but  without  angles,  fre- 
quently found  in  the  retnains  of  Saxon  architecture. 

Neck  of  a  capital  ;  the  space  between  the  channe- 
lures  and  the  annulets  of  the  Grecian  Doric  capital.'  In 
the  Roman  Doric,  the  space  between  the  astragal  and 
annulet. 

Nerves;  the  mouldings  of  the  groined  libs  of  Gothic 
vaults. 

Newel  ;  a  post  at  the  starting  or  landing  of  a  stair. 

Niche  ;  trom  an  Italian  word,  signifying  a  skell  ,  a 
hollow  formed  in  a  wall,  for  receiving  a  statue,  &c. 
An  Angular  IS^iche  is  one  formed  in  the  corner  of  a 
building  :  a  Ground  JYiche,  one  having  its  rise  from  the 
ground,  without  a  base  or  dado. 

Niches:   in  carpentry  and  masonry. 

Nogs ;  a  provincial  term,  signifying  what  are  other- 
wise called   Wood-hricks. 


O. 


Obelisk  ;  a  quadrangular  pyramid,  high  and  slender, 
raised  as  a  monument  or  ornament,  and  commonly 
charged  with  inscriptions  and  ornaments. 

Odeum  ;  among  the  ancients,  a  place  for  the  rehear- 
sal of  music  and  other  particular  purposes. 

Ogee  ;  a  moulding  of  two  members,  one  concave, 
the  other  convex.     It  is  otherwise  called  a  cymatium. 

Opened-newellcd  stairs  :  a  stair  with  newels  at  the 
starting  and  angles  of  the  well-hole. 

Oriel-window  ;  a  projecting  angular  window,  com- 
monly of  a  triagonal  or  pentagonal  form,  and  divided 
by  mullions  and  transoms  into  different  bays,  and  com- 
partments. 

Orthogonal  ;   the  same  as  Rectangular.. 

Orthography  :  an  elevation,  showing  all  the  parts  of 
a  building  in  true  proportion. 

Ova;  an  ornament  in  form  of  an  egg.  Ociculum  is 
its  diminutive. 

Out  of  winding  ;  perfectly  smooth  and  even,  or  form- 
ing a  true  plane. 


I      Out  to  out;  to  the  extremities  or  utmost  bounds  ; 
in  taking  dimensions. 


P. 


Pagoda,  or  Paged;  an  Indian  temple,  common  in 
Hindooslan  and  the  countries  to  the  east.  These 
structures,  dedicated  to  idolatry,  are  mostly  of  stone, 
square,  not  very  lofty,  without  windows,  and  crowned 
w  ith  a  cupola. 

Palace  ;  a  name  generally  given  to  the  dwellings  of 
kings,  princes,  bishops,  &c. 

Pale  ;  a  pointed  slake,  and  piece  of  board,  used  in 
making  enclosures.  Hence  a  Puling  Fence  is  that  sort 
of  fence  which  is  constructed  with  pales.  See  Post 
and  Paling. 

Paling  for  trees  ;  a  sort  of  fencing  for  separate  trees, 
formed  by  three  small  posts,  connected  with  cross-bars. 

Palisade  ;   pales  or  stakes  set  up  for  an  esclosure. 

Pallier  or  Paillier;  a  French  term  signifying  a  land- 
ing-place in  a  stair  case,  which,  being  broader  than  the 
rest  of  the  stairs,  serves  as  a  resting-place. 

Pallification,  or  Piling  ;  the  act  of  piling  ground 
work,  or  strengthening  it  with  piles. 

Pantheon ;  a  temple  of  a  circular  form,  originally 
pagan. 

Parapet ;  a  dwarf  wall,  generally  raised  to  prevent 
accidents. 

Parget;  the  several  kinds  of  gypsum  or  plaster  stone 
of  which  Plaster  of  Paris  is  comjiosed. 

Paternosters  ;  a  sort  of  ornament  in  form  of  beads, 
round  or  oval,  on  astragals,  &c. 

Pavilion;  a  kind  of  turret  or  building,  usually  insu- 
lated and  contained  under  a  single  roof;  sometimes 
square,  and  sometims  in  the  form  of  a  dome  :  thus 
called  from  the  resemblance  of  its  roof  to  a  tent. 

Pedestal ;  a  square  body  of  stone  or  other  material, 
raised  to  sustain  a  column  statue,  &c.  It  is,  therefore, 
the  base  or  lowest  part  of  an  order  of  columns.  A 
Square  Pedestal  is  that  of  which  the  height  and  width 
are  equal :  a  Double  Pedestal  that  which  supports  two 
columns,  and  therefore  is  greater  in  width  than  height ; 
a  Continued  Pedestal  is  that  which  supports  a  row  of 
columns,  without  any  break. 

Pediment ;  au  ornament,  properly  of  a  low  triangular 
figure,  crowning  the  front  of  a  building,  and  serving 
often  also  as  a  decoration  over  doors,  windows,  and 
niches.  Though  the  original  and  natural  form  of  the 
pediment  be  triangular,  it  is  sometimes  formed  as  a 
segment  of  a  circle,  and  sometimes  broke  to  let  in 
busts  or  figures.  The  pediment  consists  of  its  tympa- 
num and  cornice  ;  the  tympanum  is  the  panel,  which 
may  be  either  plain  or  ornamented.  The  cornice 
crowns  this  tympanum. 

Pendent  Bridge  ;  a  wooden  bridge  supported  by 
posts  and  pillars,  and  suspended  only  by  hutments  at 
the  ends. 

Pendentive  ;  the  whole  body  of  a  vault,  suspended 
out  of  the  perpendicular  of  the  walls,  and  bearing 
against  the  arc-boutants. 

Pendentive  Cradling ;  the  timber-work,  in  arched  or 
vaulted  ceilings,  for  sustaining  the  lath  and  plaster. 


116 


GI.OSSART  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


The  term  Visking-otd  is  sometimes  used  instead  of 
Cradling. 

Pendentive  Bracketing.     See  Per.ihnlice  Arch. 

Penlastyle  ;  a  work  cuntainiiig  five  rows  ofcolumiis. 

Periptere  ;  a  building  encompassed  with  columns, 
which  form  a  kind  of  aisle  all  around  it.  1  i.s  thus 
distinguished  from  a  building  which  has  columns  only 
bejore  it,  by  the  Greeks  called  a  I'roshjk,  and  from 
one  that  has  none  at  the  sides,  called  an  Jlmphi-proslyh. 
The  S])ace,  or  aisle,  in  a  periptere,  between  the  columns 
and  the  wall,  was  called  the  Pcridrome. 

Peristyle;  among  the  ancients,  the  converge  of  Pe- 
riptere, a  contiiuied  row  of  columns  within  the  build- 
ings ;  among  the  moderns,  a  range  of  columns,  either 
wilhm  or  without  the  same. 

Persians  ;  statues  of  men,  serving  instead  of  columns 
to  support  entablatures.  They  differ  from  the  Carya- 
tides, inasmuch  as  the  latter  represents  women  only. 

Piazza;  a  portico  orcovered  walk,  supported  by  arches 

Pier  ;  a  square  [lillar,  without  any  regular  base  or 
capital. 

Pilasters  ;  a  pilaster,  in  Roman  architecture,  has  the 
same  proportion  in  diameter  and  mouldings  as  the 
column.  The  Grecian  pilaster  is  generally  called  Anloi, 
and  dili'ers  in  diameter,  bases,  and  capital.  A  Uemi- 
pilasUrs is  one  that  supports  an  arch. 

Pile  planks  ;  planks  of  which  the  ends  are  sharpened, 
so  as  to  enter  into  the  bottom  of  a  canal,  &c. 

Pillar  ;  a  column  of  an  irregular  make  ;  not  formed 
according  to  rules,  but  of  arbitrary  proportions ;  free 
or  insulated  in  every  part,  and  always  deviating  from 
the  measures  of  regular  columns.  This  is  the  distinc- 
tion of  the  pillar  from  the  column.  A  square  pillar  is 
commonly  called  apier.  A  butting  pillar  is  a  bulment 
or  body  of  masonry,  erected  to  prop,  or  to  sustain  the 
thrust  of  a  vault,  arch,  &c. 

Pinnacle  ;  the  top  or  roof  of  a  building,  terminating 
in  a  point. 

Planting  ;  laying  the  first  courses  of  stone  in  a  found- 
ation, with  all  possible  accuracy. 

Platband ;  any  flat  square  mouldmg,  of  which  the 
heght  much  exceeds  its  projecture.  .See  Farcice.  The 
Platband  of  a  door  or  windoio,  is  used  for  the  lintel, 
where  that  is  made  square  or  not  much  archedi  Plat- 
bands of  fittings  are  the  lists  or  fillets  between  the 
flutings  of  columns. 

Platform  ;  a  row  of  beams,  supporting  the  timber- 
work  of  a  roof,  and  laying  at  the  top  of  the  wall  where 
the  entablature  ought  to  be  raised  :  also  a  flat  terrace 
on  the  top  of  a  building. 

Plinth  ;  the  squaie  piece  under  the  mouldings  in  the 
bases  of  columns.  The  plinth  terminates  the  column 
with  its  base  at  the  bottom,  as  the  abacus  does  with  its 
capital  at  the  top  :  but  the  abacus,  in  the  Tuscan  order, 
being  plain,  square,  and  massy,  has  been  called  the 
plinth  of  that  capital.  The  plinth  of  a  statue,  &c.  is  a 
base  serving  to  su|)port  it  and  its  pedestal. 

Plugs  ;  pieces  of  timber,  driven  perpendicularly  into 
a  wall,  and  having  the  projecting  part  sawed  away,  so 
as  to  be  flush  with  the  face. 

Poiiitcd-arch  ;  an  arch  so  pointed  at  the  top  as  to 
resemble  the  point  of  a  lance. 


Pomted  architecture  ;  that  style  vulgarly  called  Go- 
thic, more  pro|)erly  English. 

Porch  ;  the  kind  of  vestibule  at  the  entrance  of  tem- 
ples, halls,  churches,  &c. 

Portail ;  the  face  of  a  church,  on  the  tide  in  which 
the  great  door  is  formed  ;  also  the  gate  of  a  castle, 
palace,  &c. 

Portal  ;  a  little  gate,  where  there  are  two  of  a  difler- 
ent  size  :  also  a  kind  of  arch,  of  joiner's  work,  before 
a  door. 

Portico  ;  a  covered  walk,  porch,  or  i>iazza,  supported 
j  by  columns. 

i  Post  and  Paling  ;  a  close  wooden  fence,  constructed 
ot  posts  set  into  the  ground  and  pales  nailed  to  rails 
between  them.  The  part  of  the  post  intended  to  be 
inseited  in  the  ground  should  be  charred,  or  superfi- 
cially burnt,  in  order  to  prevent  decay. 

Post  and  Hailing  ,  an  open  wooden  fence,  consisting 
of  posts  and  rails  only. 

iPosticum  ;   a  postern  gate  or  buck-door. 

Postcenium  ;  in  an  ancient  theatre,  a  back  room  or 
place  for  dressing  in,  &c. 

Powderings  ;  a  species  of  device  for  filling  up  vacant 
spaces  in  carved  work,  &c. 

Priming;  in  painting,  the  laying  on  of  the  first  colour. 

Principal  Brace ;  a  brace  immediately  under  iho 
chief  rafters  or  parallel  to  them.     See  Brace. 

Principal  Rafters.     See  Rafters. 

Priory  ;   a  religious  house  or  institution,  at  the  hesid  ' 
of  which  is  a  prior  or  prioress. 

Profile ;  the  figure  or  draught  of  a  building,  &c ; 
also  the  general  contour  or  outline. 

Projecture  ;  the  outjctting,  or  prominence,  which  the 
mouldings  and  other  ornaments  have  beyond  the  naked 
of  the  walls,  &c. 

Pronaos  ;  an  ancient  name  for  a  porch  to  a  temple 
or  other  spacious  building. 

Proscenium  ;  in  a  theatre,  the  stage  or  the  front  of  it. 

Prostyle  ;   a  range  of  columns  in  front  of  a  temple. 

Prolhyrum  ;   a  porch  or  portal  at  the  outer  door. 

Pudlaies  ,   pieces  of  timber,  for  stages,  &c. 

Pug-piling;   dove-tailed  or  pile-planking. 

Purified  ,  ornamented  in  a  manner  resembling  dra- 
pery, embroidery,  or  lace-work. 

Putlogs  or  Putlocks,  in  scaffolding,  the  transversa 
pieces,  at  right  angles  to  the  wall.     See  Ledgers. 

Puzzolana  ;  substance  composed  of  volcanic  ashes, 
named  from  Puzztwlo  in  Italy,  where  it  abounds,  and 
celebrated  as  a  principal  ingredient  in  cements.  When 
mixed  with  a  small  proportion  of  lime  it  quickly  hardens, 
and  this  induration  takes  place  even  under  water.  Seo 
Cements. 

Pycnostyle  ;  colums  thick  set. 

Pyramid  ;  a  solid  massive  structure,  which,  from  a 
square,  triangular,  or  other  base,  rises  diminishing  to  a 
vertex  or  point. 

a. 

Quadra  ;  any  square  boarder  or  frame  encompassing 
a  basso-relievo,  pane),  &c. 

Quadrangle  ,  a    figure   having   four   sides  and  four 


GLOSSART    OF    TECHNICAL    TERMS. 


117 


angles  :  a  square  is,  therefore,  a  regular  quadrangle, 
and  a  trapezium  an  irregular  one. 

Quarry  ;  a  pane  of  glass,  in  a  lozenge  or  diamond 
form. 

Quink  ;  a  piece  of  ground  taken  out  of  any  regular 
ground-plot  or  floor.  Thus,  if  the  ground-plot  were 
oblong  or  square,  a  corner-piece  separated  from  it,  to 
make  a  court,  yard,  &c.,  is  called  a  qiiinl: 

Quirk  ;  a  recess  member  in  mouldings. 

Quirk-mouldings  are  the  convex  parts  of  Grecian 
mouldings,  where  they  recede  at  (he  top,  and  form 
a  re-entient  angle  with  the  soffit  which  covers  the 
moulding. 

Quoin,  external  or  internal.  The  name  is  particu- 
larly applied  to  the  stones  at  the  corners  of  brick  build- 
ings. When  these  stand  out  beyond  the  brick-work, 
with  edges  chamfered,  they  are  called  Rustic  Quoi7is. 

R. 

Rabetting,  or  Rebating;  a  recess  made  in  door- 
jambs,  &c. 

Raiser;  a  board  set  on  edge  under  the  foreside  of  a 
step  or  stair. 

Raising-pieces  ;  pieces  that  lie  under  the  beams  and 
over  the  posts  or  punchions. 

Raising-plates  or  Top-plates  ;  plates  in  brick  walls 
to  lay  the  beams  on,  or  plates  to  fix  the  beams,  princi- 
pal rafters,  &c.  to. 

Raking  moulding  ;  a  moulding  whose  arrises  are  in- 
clined to  the  horizon  in  any  given  angle. 

Ramp  ;  in  hand-railing,  a  concavity  on  the  upper 
side,  formed  over  risers,  or  over  a  half  or  quarter  space, 
by  a  sudden  rise  of  the  steps  above. 

Rampant  arch  ;  an  arch,  of  which  the  abutments 
spring  from  an  inclined  plane. 

Reglet,  or  Riglet ;  a  flat  narrow  moulding,  used 
chiefly  in  compartments  and  panels  to  separate  the 
parts  or  members,  and  to  form  knots,  frets,  &c. 

Regrating;  in  masonry,  taking  off  the  outer  surface 
of  an  old  hewn  stone,  so  as  to  make  it  look  new  again. 

Rejointing  in  masonry,  the  filling  up  of  the  joints  of 
stones  in  old  buildings,  when  worn  hollow  by  time  and 
•weather. 

Relievo,  Relief.or  Embossment.  See  Mo-relievo,  &c 

Resault ;  a  French  word  signifying  projecting  or 
receding  from  a  line  or  general  range. 

Return-bead  ;  a  bead  which  appears  on  the  edge  and 
face  of  a  piece  of  stuff  iu  the  same  manner,  forming  a 
double-quirk. 

Revels,  pronounced  Reveals  ;  the  vertical  retreating 
surface  of  an  apeiture,  as  the  two  vertical  sides  between 
the  front  of  the  wall  and  the  windows  or  door-frame. 

Rib ;  a  curved  or  arch-formed  timber. 

Ribbing ;  the  whole  of  the  timber-work  for  sustaining 
a  vaulted  or  covered  ceiling. 

Ridge-piece  ;  a  piece  running  from  one  king  post  to 
the  other,  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  jack-rafters. 

Rood-loft ;  in  ancient  cathedral  and  abbey  churches, 
the  gallery  over  the  entrance  into  the  choir. 

Rose  ;  an  ornament  in  the  form  of  a  rose,  found 
chiefly  in  cornices,  friezes,  &c. 

30 


Rotondo  or  Rotunda  ,•  a  common  name  for  any  cir- 
cular building. 

Rubble- wall ;  a  wall  built  of  unhewn  stone,  whether 
with  or  without  mortar. 

Rudenture  ;  the  fig-ure  of  a  rope,  or  of  a  stall',  whether 
plain  or  carved,  with  which  a  third  part  of  the  fluting 
of  columns  is  frequently  filled  up.  It  is  sometimes 
called  cabling:  hence  the  columns  are  said  to  be  cabled 
or  rudenlcd. 

Ruderated  ;  in  paving,  &c.  laid  with  pebbles  orUttle 
stones. 

Rustic  building  ;  one  constructed  in  the  simplest  man- 
ner, and  apparently  more  agreeably  to  the  face  of  nature 
than  the  rules  of  arl.  Rustic  work  and  rustic  quoins  are 
commonly  used  in  the  basement  part  of  a  building. 

Rusticating  ;  incisions  made  in  the  stone  work,  either 
by  a  recess  at  right  angles,  or  an  angle  of  forty-fivo 
degrees  to  the  surface  ;  the  former  making  a  groove 
of  three  sides,  the  latter  two. 

Rustic-work ;  that  exhibited  on  the  face  of  stones, 
which,  instead  of  being  smooth,  are  hatched  or  picked 
(frosted  or  vermiculated,)  with  a  point  of  a  tool,  &c. 

S. 

Sagging  ;  bending  downwards  in  the  middle,  from 
a  horizontal  direction  ;  as  a  long  plank  laid  horizontally 
and  supported  at  each  end  only. 

Saggitta  ;  a  name  by  some  used  for  the  key-piece 
of  an  arch. 

Sally  ;  a  projection  or  sort  of  bird's-mouth  to  a 
rafter,  &c. 

Saloon;  a  spacious,  lofty,  and  elegant  hall  or  apart- 
ment, vaulted  at  top,  and  generally  having  two  ranges 
of  windows.  A  state-room  common  in  the  palaces  of 
Italy. 

Sarcophagus  ;  a  tomb  of  stone,  in  general  highly 
decorated,  and  used  by  the  ancients  to  contain  the 
dead  bodies  of  distinguished  personages. 

Sash  ;  a  frame  for  holding  the  panes  or  squares  of 
glass  in  windows:  too  well  known  to  require  description. 

Scaffolding.      See  Lcdo'ers. 

Scribing  ;  adjusting  the  edge  of  a  board,  so  that  it 
shall  fit  and  correspond  with  a  given  surface.  In  join- 
ery, the  act  of  fitting  one  piece  of  wood  upon  another, 
so  that  the  fibres  of  one  may  be  perpendicular  to  those 
of  the  other.     See  Mitring. 

Scroll.     See  Volute  or  Slavis. 

Sealing ;  fixing  a  piece  of  wood  or  iron  in  a  wall,  with 
mortar,  lead,  or  other  binding,  for  staples,  hinges,  &c. 

Section  of  a  building  ;  a  representation  of  it,  as  ver- 
tically divided  into  two  parts,  so  as  to  exhibit  the  con- 
struction of  the  interior. 

Sesspool,  or  Cesspool ;  a  deep  hole  or  w'ell  under 
the  mouihof  a  drain,  for  the  reception  of  sediment,  &c. 
by  which  the  drain  might  be  choked. 

Sewer:  a  common  drain  or  conduct  for  conveying 
foul  water,  &c. 

Shaft  of  a  column  ;  the  part  between  the  base  and 
capital. 

Sham-door;  in  joinery,  a  panel  of  frame-work  that 
appears  like  a  door,  but  does  not  open. 


118 


GLOSSAUY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS. 


Shanks ;  the  interstical  spaces  between  the  channels 
of  the  trigliph,  in  the  Doric  frieze  ,  sometimes  called 
Legs. 

Shear;  an  oblique  prop,  acting  as  a  brace  upon  the 
the  side  of  a  building. 

Shoar,  dead.     See  Dead-shoar. 

Shoe ,  the  part  at  the  bottom  of  a  water  trunk  or 
pipe,  for  turning  the  course  of  the  water. 

Side-posts ;  in  rooling,  a  sort  of  truss-post,  placed 
in  pairs,  each  post  being  fixed  at  the  same  distance  as 
the  rest  from  the  middle  of  the  truss. 

Single-hung ;  in  window-sashes,  when  one  only  is 
moveable. 

Sinu-le  measure  ;  in  doors,  means  square  on  both 
sides,  in  opposition  to  double-measure,  which  signifies 
moulded  on  both  sides.  If  moulded  on  one  side,  and 
square  on  the  other,  it  is  expressed  by  measure  and  half. 

Slit-deal;   an  inch  deal  cut  into  two  leaves  or  boards. 

Socle,  or  Zoc\e  ;  a  square  piece,  broader  than  it  is 
high,  placed  under  the  bases  of  pedestals,  &c.,  to  sup- 
port vases  and  other  ornaments.  As  there  is  a  Con- 
tinued pedestal,  so  is    there  also   a   Continued   Socle. 

See  Pedestal. 

Sodita,  or  SofHt;  any  timber  ceiling,  formed  of  cross- 
beams of  flying  cornices,  the  square  compartments  or 
panels  of  which  are  enriched  with  sculpture  or  painting. 
SoJJllalAO  means  the  under  side  of  an  architrave,  and  that 
of  the  corona,  or  drip,  &c. ;  also,  the  horizontal  under- 
sides of  the  heads  of  apertures,  as  of  doors  and  windows. 

Soflit,  of  stairs. 

Sommering;  the  continuation  of  the  joints  of  arches 
towards  a  centre  or  meeting  point. 

Span  of  an  arch,  or  building ;  the  extremities  of  the 
inner  or  outer  sides,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Span-roof;  a  simple  roof,  consisting  of  two  inclined 
sides. 

Spherical  and  Spheroidal  Bracketing ;  brackets  form- 
ed to  support  lath  and  plaster,  so  that  the  outer  surface 
shall  be  spherical,  or  spheroidal. 

Sphin.v ;  a  favorite  ornament  in  Egyptian  architec- 
ture, representing  the  monster,  half  woman  and  half 
beast,  said  to  have  been  born  of  Typhon  and  Echidna. 

Splayed  ;  one  side  making  an  oblique  angle  with  the 
other,  as  .Splays  or  Splaying  Jambs. 

Sprmging-course;  the  horizontal  course  from  which 
an  arch  begins  to  spring,  or  the  rows  of  stones  upon 
which  the  first  arch-stones  arc  laid. 

Square  in  geometry,  but,  among  workmen,  it  com- 
monly means  that  one  side  or  surface  is  perpendicular 
to  another.  In  joinery,  the  work  is  said  to  be  framed 
square,  when  the  framing  has  all  the  angles  of  its 
styles,  rails,  and  mountings,  square,  without  mouldings. 

Square  of  building,  is  100  superficial  feet  measured 
on  the  surface  of  the  jiround. 

Squaring  hand  rails  ;  the  method  of  cutting  a  plank 
to  the  form  of  a  rail  for  a  stuir-  case,  so  that  all  the 
vertical  sections  may  be  rectangles. 

Standards  ;  the  upright  poles  used  in  scaflTolding. 
In  joinery,  the  upright  pieces  of  a  plate-rack. 

Staves  ;  in  joinery,  the  boards  that  are  united  late- 
rally, in  order  to  form  a  hollow  cylinder,  cone  &c.  In 
stables,  the  cylinders  or  rounds  forming  the  hay-rack. 


Story-pos'.s ;  U|)right  timbers,  chiefly  in  sheds  and 
workshops,  and  so  disposed  with  a  beam  over  them,  as 
to  support  the  superincumbent  part  of  the  exterior  wall. 

Strite  ;  the  fillets  or  rays  separating  the  furrows  or 
grooves  of  fluted  columns. 

Striges ;  the  channels  of  a  fluted  column 

String-board  ;  in  slairing,  a  board  placed  next  to  the 
well-hole,  and  terminating  the  ends  of  the  steps. 

Summer-tree  ,  a  beam  full  of  mortises  to  receive  the 
ends  of  joists,  and  to  which  the  girders  are  framed. 

Sunk-shelves;  in  pantries,  &r.,  shelves  having  a  groove 
to  prevent  the  plates,  set  up  on  edge,  from  sliding  off. 

Surbaces  ;  a  horizontal  finish,  around  rooms,  imme- 
diately under  the  windows. 

Swallow-tail  ;  a  mode  of  uniting  two  pieces  of  tinibrr 
so  strongly  that  they  cannot  fall  asunder.     See  Dovetail. 

Systyle  ;  an  intercolumniation  of  two  diameters. 


Table,  projecting  or  raised  ;  a  flat  surface,  some- 
times ornamented,  which  projects  from  the  surface  of  a 
wall. 

Table,  raking  ;  one  not  perpendicular  to  the  horizon. 

Table,  rusticated.     See  Rusticated. 

Table  of  Glass  ;  the  circular  plate,  before  it  is  cut 
or  divided.     Twenty-four  such  make  a  case. 

Tabled  ;  cut  into,  or  formed  like,  tables. 

Taenia,  or  Tenia;  a  small  square  fillet,  at  the  top  of 
the  architrave,  in  the  Doric  capital. 

Tail  in  ;  to  fasten  any  thing  into  a  wall  at  one  end, 
as  steps,  &c.     In  joinery,  commonly  called  housing. 

Tail-trJmmer;  a  trimmer  next  to  the  \vall,i!ito  which 
the  ends  of  joists  are  fastened. 

Tailing;  the  part  of  a  projecting  brick,  &c.  inserted 
in  a  wall. 

Talus;  the  slope  or  inclination  of  a  wall,  among 
workmen  called  Battering.  If  the  wall  inclines  beyond 
the  perpendicular  of  its  base,  it  is  called  hanging. 

Tambour  ;  from  a  word  signifying  a  drum,  and  mean- 
ing the  naked  of  a  Corinthian  or  Composite  capital  : 
also  the  wall  of  a  circular  temple,  surrounded  with 
columns.  The  same  word  signifies  a  place  enclosed 
with  folding  doors,  to  break  the  current  of  aiv  from 
without,  at  the  entrances  of  churches.  Sic. 

Tarras,  or  Terras  ;  a  strong  mortar  or  plaster,  used 
in  aquatic  works. 

Tassels ;  the  pieces  of  timber  tliat  lie  under  the 
mantletree  ;  common  in  the  country.     See  Torscl. 

Teaze-tenon  ;  a  tenon  upon  the  top  of  a  post  for 
supporting  two  level  pieces  of  timber  at  right  angles  to 
each  other. 

Telamones ;  a  Roman  term  for  the  figm-es  of  men 
supporting  a  cornice,  &c.  The  same  as  the  Atlantidte 
and  Persians  of  the  Greeks.      See  Persians. 

Terminus;  (plural  Terminii)  a  trunk  or  pedestal, 
sculptured  at  the  top  into  the  figure  of  the  head  of  a  man, 
woman,  or  satyr,  whose  body  seems  to  be  enclosed  in  the 
trunk,  as  in  a  sheath.     The  latter  is  called  the  Vagina. 

Terrace  ;  an  elevated  area  for  walking  upon,  and 
sometimes  meaning  a  balcony. 

Terrace-roofs  ;  roofs  flat  on  the  lop. 


GLOS3ART   OP    TECHNICAL   TERMS. 


119 


Tesselated  pavement ;  a  curious  pavement  of  Mosaic 
work,  composed  of  small  square  stones,  bricks,  &c., 
called  lesselce. 

Tessera;  a  cube  or  dye;  also  a  modern  composition 
for  covering  flat  roofs. 

Testudinal  Ceilings  ;  those  formed  like  the  back  of  a 
tortoise. 

Tetrastyche  ;  a  gallery  with  four  rows  of  pillars. 

Tie-beam  ;  a  beam  running  from  one  wall  to  the 
other,  on  which  a  pair  of  principal  rafters  maf  be  placed. 

Tiles  ;  the  artificial  stones  used  in  covering  buildings. 
Plane-tiles  and  Croicn-tiles  are  of  a  rectang-ular  form, 
with  a  flat  surface,  of  which  the  dimensions  are  about 
10^  inches  long,  6  broad,  and  five-eighths  thick  :  weight 
from  21bs.  to  2^Ibs. 

Ridge-tiles,  or  Roof-tiles,  are  those  of  a  cylindric  form 
and  used  for  covering  the  ridges  of  houses.  Of  these 
the  dimetisions  are  twelve  inches  long  10  broad  and  five- 
eighths  thick  :  weight,  about  4ilbs.  Those  covering  the 
angle  formed  by  two  sloping  sides  are  called  hip-tiles. 

Gutter-tiles,  formed  according  to  the  purpose  for 
,  which  they  are  intended,  are  of  the  same  weight  as  the 
ridge-tiles. 

Pan-tiles  are  those  having  each  surface  both  concave 
and  convex;  they  are  hung  on  the  lath,  by  means  of  a 
ledge  formed  on  the  upper  end.  The  usual  size  is  14^ 
inches  long,  and  10  broad.     Weight,  from  5  to  S.^lbs, 

Tile-creasing  ;  two  rows  of  tiles  fi.Ked  horizontally 
under  the  coping  of  a  wall,  for  discharging  lain-water. 

Tondino  ;  a  round  moulding  resembling  a  ring.  See 
Torus. 

Tongue;  a  projecting  part,  on  the  edge  of  a  board,  to 
be  inserted  in  a  groove  ploughed  in  the  edge  of  another. 

Top-beams  ;  the  collar  beam  of  a  truss  ;  the  same 
as  formerly  called  wind-beam  or  strut-beam,  and  now 
collar-beam. 

Top-rail ;  the  upper  rail  of  a  piece  of  framing  or 
wainscoting. 

Torsel ;  a  piece  of  wood  laid  into  a  wall  for  the  end 
of  a  timber  or  beam  to  rest  on. 

Torus  ;  a  semi-bead. 

Trabs  ;  an  ancient  name  for  wall-plates  or  rising- 
plates,  for  supporting  the  rafters. 

Transept ;  the  cross-aisles  of  a  church  of  a  cruciform 
structure. 

Transom  ;  a  cross-beam  :  the  horizontal  piece  framed 
across  a  double-lighted  window. 

Transom  windows  ;  a.  window  or  light,  over  a  door, 
&c.     Improperly  called  fan-lights. 

Tread  of  a  step  ;  the  horizontal  part  of  it. 

Trellis- work:  reticulated  or  net-like  framing,  made 
of  thin  bars  of  wood. 

Trigliph  or  Triglyph;  an  ornament  in  the  frieze  of  a 
Doric  entablature. 

Trimmed ;  cut  into  shape,  or  fitted  in  between  parts 
previou.sly  n.xecutcd,  as  in  partition,  walls,  &c. 

Tripod  ;  a  three-legged  seat,  from  which  the  priests 
of  antiquity  delivered  their  oracles,  and  frequently  rep- 
resentpd  in  architectural  ornaments. 

Trophy  ;  an  ornament  representing  the  trunk  of  a 
tree,  supporting  military  weapons,  colours,  &c. 

Truncated  ;   cut  short  or  divided  parallel  to  the  base. 


The  frustrum   of  a  cone,  pyramid,  &.C.,  is  therefore 

truncated. 

Truss-partition  ;  one  with  a  truss,  generally  consist- 
ing of  a  quadrangular  frame,  two  braces,  and  two  queen- 
posts,  with  a  straining  piece  between  the  queen-posts, 
opposite  the  top  of  the  braces. 

Trussels  ;  small  stands  upon  which  carpenters  saw. 

Trussing-pieces  ;  such  timbers  in  a  roof  as  are  in  a 
state  of  compression. 

Turning-piece  ;  a  board  with  a  circular  edge,  for 
turning  a  thin  brick  arch  upon. 

Tuscan  Order ;  an  order  in  architecture,  invented  in 
Tuscany. 

Tympanum,  or  Tympan.  See  Pediment.  Tympan 
also  signifies  the  panel  of  a  door  and  the  dye  of  a 
pedestal. 

Y. 

Yallev  ;  the  internal  angle  of  two  inclined  sides  of 
a  roof 

Valley-rafter  ;  a  rafter  at  the  internal  angle  of  a  roof. 
The  valley-board  is  a  board  fixed  fipon  this  rafter,  for 
the  leaden  gutter  to  lie  on. 

Vault ;  an  interior  concavity  e.xtending  over  two 
parallel  opposite  walls.  The  axis  of  a  vault  is  the 
same  as  the  axis  of  a  geometrical  solid.  See  .Arch 
and  Groin.  The  Reins  of  a  vault  are  the  sides  or 
walls  which  sustain  the  arch. 

Yeller  cupola;  a  cupola  or  dome,  terminated  by  four 
or  more  walls. 

Venetian  Door;  a  door  lighted  on  each  side. 

Venetian  Window;  a  window  having  three  separate 
apertures. 

Ventiduct ;  a  passage  or  place  for  wind  or  fresh  air. 

Vermiculated  Rustics ;  stones  worked  or  tooled  so 
as  to  appear  as  if  eaten  by  worms. 

Volute  ;  the  scroll  or  principal  ornament  of  the  Ionic 
capital. 

•  W. 

Wainscoting  ;  in  joinery,  the  lining  of  walls;  mostly 
panelled. 

Wall-plates.     See  Raising  and  Top-plates.  ' 

Water-table;  the  uppermost  stone  and  shield  to  a  wall. 

Weather-boarding  ;  feather-edged  boards,  lapped  and 
nailed  upon  each  other,  so  as  to  prevent  rain  or  drift 
from  passing  through. 

Weather-tiling;  the  covering  of  a  wall  or  upright 
with  tiles. 

Well-hole  of  stairs;  the  entire  space  occupied  by  a 
stair,  as  also  the  opening  between  front  strings,  either 
straight  or  circular. 

W^od-bricks  ;  blocks  of  wood,  shaped  like  bricks, 
and  inserted  in  walls  as  holds  for  the  joinery. 

Wreathed  columns  ;  such  as  are  twisted  in  the  form 
of  a  screw.     JVoic  obsolete. 

Z. 

/?ocLE.     See  Socle. 

Zj'stos  :  among  the  ancients,  a  portico  or  aisle  of 
unusual  length,  commonly  appropriated  to  gymnastia 
exercises. 


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